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Parnassianism (or Parnassism) was a group of French poets that began during the positivist period of the 19th century (1860s–1890s), occurring after romanticism and prior to symbolism. The style was influenced by the author Théophile Gautier as well as by the philosophical ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer.[1]

Origins and name

[edit]

The name is derived from the original Parnassian poets' journal, Le Parnasse contemporain, itself named after Mount Parnassus, home of the Muses of Greek mythology. The anthology was first issued in 1866 and again in 1871 and 1876, including poems by Charles Leconte de Lisle, Théodore de Banville, Sully Prudhomme, Stéphane Mallarmé, Paul Verlaine, François Coppée, Nina de Callias, and José María de Heredia.

The Parnassians were influenced by Théophile Gautier and his doctrine of "art for art's sake".[2] As a reaction to the less-disciplined types of romantic poetry and what they considered the excessive sentimentality and undue social and political activism of Romantic works, the Parnassians strove for exact and faultless workmanship,[3] selecting exotic and (neo-)classical subjects that they treated with the rigidity of form and emotional detachment. Elements of this detachment were derived from the philosophical work of Schopenhauer.[citation needed]

The two most characteristic and most long-lasting members of the movement were Heredia and Leconte de Lisle.[4]

Transnational influences

[edit]

Despite its French origins, Parnassianism was not restricted to French authors. Perhaps the most idiosyncratic of Parnassians, Olavo Bilac, Alberto de Oliveira's disciple, was an author from Brazil who managed carefully to craft verses and metre while maintaining a strong emotionalism in them.[5] Polish Parnassians included Antoni Lange, Felicjan Faleński, Cyprian Kamil Norwid and Leopold Staff.[citation needed] A Romanian poet with Parnassian influences was Alexandru Macedonski.[6] Florbela Espanca was a Parnassian Portuguese poet (Larousse), as was Cesário Verde.[7]

British poets such as Andrew Lang, Austin Dobson and Edmund Gosse were sometimes known as "English Parnassians" for their experiments in old (often originally French) forms such as the ballade, the villanelle and the rondeau, taking inspiration from French authors like Banville. Gerard Manley Hopkins used the term Parnassian pejoratively to describe competent but uninspired poetry, “spoken on and from the level of a poet’s mind”.[8] He identified this trend particularly with the work of Alfred Tennyson, citing the poem "Enoch Arden" as an example.[9] Many prominent Turkish poets of Servet-i Fünun were inspired by Parnassianism such as Tevfik Fikret, Yahya Kemal Beyatlı and Cenap Şahabettin.[10]

See also

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References

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Parnassianism

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Parnassianism was a French poetic movement that flourished in the second half of the 19th century, emphasizing the perfection of form, objectivity, and aesthetic beauty over emotional expression or social utility, often summarized by the doctrine of l'art pour l'art (art for art's sake). Emerging as a reaction to the subjective sentimentality of Romanticism, particularly after the political upheavals of the 1848 Revolution, it sought to treat poetry as a craft akin to sculpture or gem-engraving, prioritizing precision in rhyme, rich sonorous language, and impersonal detachment. The movement drew its name from Le Parnasse contemporain, a seminal anthology published in three volumes (1866, 1871, and 1876) by Alphonse Lemerre, edited by Louis-Xavier de Ricard and Catulle Mendès, which showcased works evoking the classical ideal of Mount Parnassus as the abode of the Muses. The origins of Parnassianism trace back to informal gatherings of young poets at Lemerre's bookshop in the 1860s, gaining momentum amid France's imperial expansion and increased cultural exchanges that inspired exotic and classical themes. (1811–1872) is widely regarded as its foundational figure, with his 1852 collection Émaux et Camées exemplifying the movement's shift toward polished, eight-syllable verses, painterly imagery, and musical harmony, as articulated in his manifesto-like poem L'Art (1857). Other key proponents included Charles-Marie (1818–1894), who contributed exotic and mythological subjects to the early anthologies; Théodore de Banville (1823–1891), known for his rhythmic innovations; and José-María de Heredia (1842–1905), celebrated for sonnets evoking ancient grandeur. Figures like Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907) and François Coppée (1842–1908) also aligned with its principles, though the core group rejected in favor of disinterested beauty and formal rigor. Parnassian poetry typically featured classical motifs, tropical or Oriental scenes, and a focus on sensory precision, using techniques like varied caesuras and evocative metaphors to achieve an almost sculptural impersonality. This aesthetic bridged Romantic exuberance and emerging Symbolism, influencing poets such as and by reclaiming poetry's musicality and visual abstraction from non-representational sources like and . Beyond , the movement inspired international variants, including the English Neo-Parnassians like (1837–1909), through translations and cultural exchanges that promoted its ideals of cosmopolitan form during the era's literary . By the 1890s, as Symbolism gained prominence, Parnassianism waned but left a lasting legacy in modern poetics' emphasis on technical mastery and artistic autonomy.

Origins and Historical Context

Etymology and the Parnasse Anthology

The term "Parnassianism" derives from (Greek: Πάρνασσος, Parnassos), a sacred mountain in central Greece revered in ancient mythology as the dwelling place of Apollo and the nine Muses, deities of poetry, music, and , thereby evoking ideals of artistic elevation, inspiration, and detached impersonality in poetic creation. This underscored the movement's aspiration to transcend personal emotion, positioning poetry as an objective, sculptural endeavor akin to . The anthology Le Parnasse contemporain: recueil de vers nouveaux, which crystallized the movement, appeared in three volumes published by Alphonse Lemerre: the first in 1866, the second dated 1869 but released in 1871, and the third in 1876. Edited by Catulle Mendès and Louis-Xavier de Ricard, the collection gathered works from over fifty contributors across its volumes, including emerging talents like and , thereby launching Parnassianism as a cohesive literary force. Issued initially in weekly installments for the first volume, the anthology's rigorous selection process emphasized formal precision and thematic detachment, deliberately excluding overtly subjective or effusive pieces that echoed Romantic . This publication marked a deliberate pivot in , countering the emotional excesses of by prioritizing classical restraint, impersonal description, and technical virtuosity as hallmarks of enduring art. Contemporary critics lauded the anthology's contributors for their masterful command of meter, , and , often likening their verses to polished marble sculptures, yet faulted the collection for an perceived emotional sterility that rendered the poetry intellectually impressive but affectively distant.

Emergence in Mid-19th Century

The failure of the 1848 Revolution and the subsequent collapse of the Second Republic in 1851 led to widespread political disillusionment in , as the ideals of liberty and progress championed by appeared untenable amid economic instability and social upheaval. This sentiment was compounded by the establishment of the Second Empire under in 1852, whose regime imposed cultural conservatism through and promotion of official art that aligned with imperial , prompting many intellectuals to seek detachment from contemporary politics in favor of aesthetic autonomy. In this environment, literature became a refuge for objectivity, as writers rejected the era's turbulent subjectivity to pursue impersonal, refined expression. Parnassianism emerged directly as a reaction against the excesses of , particularly the subjective emotionalism and lyrical effusion exemplified by Victor Hugo's epic grandeur and Alphonse de Lamartine's meditative sentimentality, which had dominated since the . Critics of viewed its emphasis on personal passion and social utility as indulgent and morally prescriptive, leading Parnassian precursors to advocate "" (l'art pour l'art) as a principled antidote that prioritized beauty and form over didactic content or emotional indulgence. This shift reflected a broader positivist turn in mid-century , where scientific rationalism and historical skepticism eroded faith in Romantic individualism, fostering a desire for disciplined, impersonal art. A key early precursor was Théophile Gautier's preface to his 1835 novel Mademoiselle de Maupin, which forcefully articulated the autonomy of by declaring that "anything useful is ugly" and insisting on beauty's from or practical ends, laying foundational groundwork for Parnassian ideals. Gautier's manifesto-like text, written amid the July Monarchy's own political flux, prefigured the movement's rejection of Romantic and influenced subsequent poets seeking formal rigor. During the 1850s and 1860s, informal poetic circles formed in , where emerging writers gathered in private salons and at publisher Alphonse Lemerre's bookstore to debate principles of objectivity and artistic detachment, with Charles-Marie-René hosting key discussions at his home that shaped the group's . These meetings, often involving figures disillusioned by the Second Empire's cultural constraints, solidified a collective commitment to impersonal as a bulwark against both political interference and Romantic excess. This network culminated in the publication of the Parnasse contemporain anthology in 1866, which formalized the movement's emergence.

Core Principles and Aesthetics

Emphasis on Form and Objectivity

Parnassianism championed the principle of impersonality in , positioning the poet as an objective craftsman who prioritizes technical mastery over , much like the detached artisans of . This approach rejected the Romantic emphasis on subjective sentiment, instead advocating for a serene, impersonal aesthetic where personal feelings are sublimated into formal perfection. Drawing on classical models such as , who exemplified restraint and moral detachment in his odes, Parnassian poets sought to emulate the clarity and balance of ancient Roman verse, treating as a disciplined form akin to or . Central to this doctrine were specific poetic techniques that underscored form and objectivity, including the rigorous use of structures and the twelve-syllable line to achieve rhythmic precision. Parnassians favored vivid, detached descriptions of exotic locales, historical events, or ancient myths—such as distant Eastern landscapes or Greek mythological figures—rendered with clinical detail to evoke visual clarity without injecting personal bias or narrative drive. They rejected merely for decorative effect, instead pursuing rhythmic perfection and evocative imagery that lent language a sculptural quality, comparable to the chiseled forms of , where every element contributes to an overall harmony of line and contour. Thematically, Parnassianism focused on timeless, non-personal subjects to maintain this objectivity, exploring nature's indifference, the grandeur of historical epochs, or the static beauty of mythological scenes devoid of moral judgment or sentimental overlay. These motifs allowed poets to highlight universal truths through impersonal observation, reinforcing the movement's commitment to art as an autonomous entity, free from didactic or autobiographical impulses. This emphasis on form over feeling aligned with broader "" ideals, though Parnassians distinguished themselves through their classical rigor.

Influences from Gautier and Schopenhauer

played a foundational role in shaping Parnassianism through his essays and prefaces, where he championed the doctrine of l'art pour l'art and the absolute supremacy of form over content or moral purpose. In his 1835 preface to the novel Mademoiselle de Maupin, articulated this aesthetic by declaring that "only that which serves no purpose can be truly beautiful," rejecting any utilitarian or didactic function for art in favor of pure, disinterested beauty. This manifesto-like statement, influenced by Romantic ideals but refined into a formalist creed, directly inspired Parnassian poets to prioritize technical perfection and sculptural precision in verse, as seen in 's own collection Émaux et camées (1852), which modeled the movement's emphasis on polished, objective expression. Arthur Schopenhauer's profoundly impacted Parnassianism by framing art as a momentary reprieve from the inexorable suffering of existence, achieved through detached aesthetic contemplation. In works like The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer posited that the will-to-live drives endless desire and pain, but aesthetic experience allows the viewer to transcend this by perceiving the Platonic Ideas of objects in pure, will-less form, offering temporary liberation without altering reality's harshness. Although his prize essay On the Freedom of the Will (1839) explores and , it reinforces this broader metaphysics, encouraging artists to seek solace in impersonal beauty rather than ethical or social engagement. Parnassians adopted this view to justify their focus on evocative, static imagery as an escape from modern disillusionment. These influences converged in early Parnassian manifestos, notably Charles-Marie-René 's prefaces, which fused Gautier's formalism with Schopenhauer's metaphysical detachment to advocate poetry as an elevated refuge from worldly strife. In the preface to Poèmes antiques (1852), decried contemporary Romantic excess and utilitarian art, instead promoting impassive evocations of ancient grandeur as a means of achieving serene objectivity. This synthesis positioned Parnassianism as a poetic to life's futility, evident in 's own verses like "Midi" from Poèmes barbares, where formal perfection conveys timeless harmony amid existential despair. Unlike contemporaneous Realism in prose, which scrutinized social conditions and human flaws for reformist ends, Parnassianism—drawing on Gautier's anti-utilitarianism and Schopenhauer's escapist —elevated poetry through impersonal form and mythic detachment, eschewing direct commentary on contemporary ills. This distinction underscored the movement's commitment to art's intrinsic value, fostering techniques of precise description and rhythmic control that briefly allude to poetic elevation without delving into or societal critique.

Prominent Figures

Leading French Parnassians

Théophile Gautier (1811–1872) is regarded as the foundational figure of Parnassianism, promoting the doctrine of l'art pour l'art through his emphasis on form, objectivity, and aesthetic beauty detached from emotion or utility. His 1852 collection Émaux et Camées exemplified polished, jewel-like verses with painterly imagery and musical harmony, while his poem L'Art (1857) served as a for treating as a precise craft akin to sculpture. Charles-Marie-René (1818–1894), born in the French colony of , emerged as the de facto leader of Parnassianism, guiding the movement through his emphasis on scholarly precision and impersonal artistry. His early works, such as Poèmes antiques (1852), drew on to evoke pagan grandeur, while Poèmes barbares (1862) expanded into exotic and primitive themes, advocating a that transcended contemporary sentiment in favor of timeless, objective beauty. Leconte de Lisle's influence extended beyond his writing; in Parisian literary salons, he mentored younger poets, fostering a circle dedicated to formal rigor and anti-Romantic detachment. Among his contemporaries, José-Maria de Heredia (1842–1905) exemplified Parnassianism through meticulously crafted celebrating historical and artistic grandeur, culminating in Les Trophées (1893), a collection of 118 such poems that captured fleeting moments from antiquity or artifacts with striking, impersonal imagery. Heredia's focus on precise details, double rhymes, and exotic nomenclature embodied the movement's aesthetic, as seen in "Le Vase étrusque," a describing an ancient Etruscan with detached, sculptural objectivity, evoking its silent endurance without emotional intrusion. Sully Prudhomme (1839–1907) brought philosophical precision to early Parnassian efforts, blending formal elegance with intellectual inquiry in collections like Stances et poèmes (1865), where verses such as "Le Vase brisé" explored themes of fragility and knowledge through measured, reflective language. His work aligned with the movement's objectivity while introducing scientific and ethical dimensions, distinguishing him as a bridge between poetic craft and contemplative depth. Théodore de Banville (1823–1891) advanced formal experimentation within Parnassianism, reviving intricate verse structures in works like Les Exilés (1867), which showcased technical virtuosity through ballades, rondeaux, and rhythmic innovation, prioritizing rhyme and meter as poetry's core elements. Banville's Petit Traité de poésie française (1872) further codified these techniques, influencing the group's commitment to craftsmanship over subjective expression. François Coppée (1842–1908) offered accessible urban vignettes that grounded Parnassianism in everyday Parisian life, as in Les Humble (1872), where concise poems depicted the struggles of the working poor with sympathetic yet restrained observation, maintaining formal perfection amid . These poets collectively shaped the Parnasse contemporain anthologies (1866, 1871, 1876), edited by Louis-Xavier de Ricard and Catulle Mendès, where their contributions—such as Leconte de Lisle's mythic evocations and Heredia's artifact sonnets—demonstrated the movement's hallmarks of objectivity and technical mastery. Within this dynamic, Leconte de Lisle's salon gatherings in served as intellectual hubs, where debates on form and impersonality reinforced the group's cohesion against Romantic excesses.

International Adherents

In during the and , poets Manuel Reina and Salvador Rueda adapted Parnassian principles of formal precision and objectivity into the emerging modernista aesthetic, often infusing their work with exotic and sensory themes to evoke distant landscapes and cultural motifs. Reina's 1877 poem "Sueños" represents an early example of this eclecticism, blending Parnassian restraint with visionary imagery that prefigures modernista experimentation. Rueda, active in the , further consolidated these traits through vivid, ekphrastic depictions of domestic scenes, art objects, and feminine figures, drawing on Parnassian influences from French models while grounding them in Andalusian sensuality.

Global Spread and Influences

Parnassianism in Portugal and Brazil

While the Geração dos 70, a literary cohort active in the 1870s centered around Coimbra University, sought to renew Portuguese poetry through broader French influences amid realist and naturalist trends, Parnassianism proper emerged more distinctly in the 1880s–1890s with poets who emphasized formal precision and objectivity. Key figures included João Penha (1839–1919), considered the initiator of Portuguese Parnassianism, whose works adopted the movement's aesthetic of "art for art's sake" while prioritizing classical and national themes. António Feijó also contributed to this development through structured verse and descriptive clarity. António Nobre (1867–1900), emerging slightly later, demonstrated meticulous craftsmanship in his sole published collection, Só (1892), achieving formal perfection through sonnet forms and evocative imagery. Published in Paris, the work exemplifies influences from Parnassianism by prioritizing technical mastery, though infused with profound melancholy rooted in saudade, the nostalgic longing for Portugal's rural landscapes and lost innocence, as seen in poems like "Em Coimbra," which blend precise metric structures with emotional restraint. This fusion marked a significant adaptation in Portugal, where Parnassianism tempered French objectivity with national themes of exile and cultural introspection. In , Parnassianism flourished from the 1880s to the 1910s, becoming a dominant poetic force during the transition to the , led by the "tríade parnasiana" of Olavo Bilac, Alberto de Oliveira, and Raimundo Correia. Bilac's debut collection Poesias (1888) epitomized the movement's principles, showcasing mastery of the and classical allusions in pieces evoking ancient figures like and the Sphinx, praised by for its "forma correta e elegante." Alberto de Oliveira contributed foundational works like Sonetos e Poemas (1886), reinforcing the triad's commitment to aesthetic rigor over romantic excess. Brazilian Parnassians adapted the movement to national identity by incorporating indigenous and tropical motifs, diverging from pure French imitation to evoke local landscapes and patriotism. Bilac's manifesto poem "Profissão de Fé" (1888), opening Poesias, declared allegiance to form with lines like "Invejo o ourives quando escrevo: / Imito o amor / Com que ele, em ouro, o alto relevo / Faz de uma flor," while later works such as Pátria and Música Brasileira wove in Brazilian flora, history, and civic pride, as in his 1916 vision of the nation as "grandes árvores, de longas e profundas raízes." This localization sustained the movement's relevance amid republican ideals. The spread of Parnassianism in Brazil was institutionalized through literary academies, notably the Academia Brasileira de Letras (ABL), founded in 1897 with Bilac and Oliveira as founding members, which promoted and formal ideals modeled on French institutions. Journals and civic campaigns further amplified its influence, with Bilac advocating classical languages as "o último polimento do espírito" in 1909. The movement endured until the 1922 Modernist revolution, which critiqued its detachment—exemplified by Graça Aranha's 1924 declaration that "Os mitos gregos estão mortos"—paving the way for vernacular innovation.

Impact on Symbolism and Modernism

By the 1880s, Parnassianism began to wane as the Symbolist movement gained prominence, marking a shift from objective formalism to more subjective and evocative expression in . Figures like José-Maria de Heredia served as a bridge between the two schools, maintaining Parnassian precision in form while incorporating suggestive that appealed to Symbolists, as seen in his Les Trophées (1893), where classical motifs blend with atmospheric depth. Symbolists such as , who had earlier aligned with Parnassian ideals in works like Poèmes saturniens (1866), later critiqued the movement's rigidity and formal constraints, yet retained its emphasis on technical craftsmanship to refine their own musicality and nuance. Parnassianism's legacy extended to the Decadent movement and early , where its doctrine of artistic impersonality resonated in the pursuit of detached, sculpted verse. This is evident in T.S. Eliot's (1922), which echoes Parnassian objectivity through fragmented, impersonal vignettes that prioritize structural precision over emotional effusion, drawing indirectly from French formalist traditions via translations and intertextual echoes. In Anglo-American criticism, Parnassianism reinforced the "impersonal theory" outlined in Eliot's 1919 essay ," advocating for poetry as an escape from personality to achieve timeless form. The movement's emphasis on aesthetic autonomy influenced 20th-century poetic formalist schools, including , which valorized and textual self-sufficiency in ways that paralleled Parnassian detachment from subjective intent. Beyond literature, Parnassianism's precision found parallels in the through affinities with Pre-Raphaelite techniques, as noted in the shared of and , who drew on French influences to advocate meticulous detail and sensory clarity. However, its elitist orientation—rooted in an exclusive focus on refined, erudite form—has faced critiques in postcolonial literary discourse for reinforcing Eurocentric hierarchies and marginalizing voices in global adaptations.

References

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