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Penny Red
Penny Red
Penny Red
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An unperforated Penny Red, position 2, row 2
Date of production1841 (1841)–1879 (1879)
PrinterPerkins, Bacon & Co
Perforation
  • 1841: none
  • 1850: 16 gauge (experimental)
  • 1854: 16 gauge
  • 1855: 14 gauge
DepictsQueen Victoria (1837–1901)
Face value1d
A perforated Penny Red with letters in four corners and plate 148, therefore printed 1871 or later
The plate number, 148 in this case, may be found in the margin of the stamp.

The Penny Red was a British postage stamp, issued in 1841. It succeeded the Penny Black and continued as the main type of postage stamp in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until 1879, with only minor changes to the design during that time. The colour was changed from black to red because of difficulty in seeing a cancellation mark on the Penny Black; a black cancellation mark was readily visible on a Penny Red.[1]

History

[edit]

Initially, some of the same plates used to print the Penny Black were used to print the Penny Red. About 21 billion Penny Reds were printed by Messrs. Perkins, Bacon & Co.[2] The stamps were printed in sheets of 240 (20 rows of 12 stamps), so one row cost 1 shilling and a complete sheet one pound. This configuration of 240 stamps per sheet continued with all low-value British postage stamps issued until decimalisation in 1971, when the sheet size was changed to 200 (20 rows of 10 stamps), making the lowest value denomination (half new penny) one pound per sheet. The sheets had no perforations and stamps had to be cut from the sheet using scissors, as with the Penny Black and the early printings of the Two Pence Blue.

Each stamp had unique letters AA, AB etc. in its lower corners, so that its position on the plate could be identified:

Plate configuration
AA AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ AK AL
BA BB BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ BK BL
• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
SA SB SC SD SE SF SG SH SI SJ SK SL
TA TB TC TD TE TF TG TH TI TJ TK TL

The upper corners were occupied by stars.

Perforations, in an experimental gauge 16, first came into use in 1850 and were officially adopted in 1854, also in gauge 16. The experimental perforated issue can be distinguished from the general issue as the latter was applied to a stamp that used a different alphabet type for the identifying letters. In January 1855, the perforation size was changed from 16 to 14 as it was found that the sheets were coming apart too easily; the reduced size allowed the sheets to remain intact until pressure was applied to force the separation. The upper corners of each stamp were now occupied by the same identifying letters in reverse.

Plate numbers

[edit]

On 1 April 1864, the stamp was issued with the plate number engraved in the design, in the left and right side lace work. At this time, the stars in the top corners were also replaced with the same check letters as used in the lower corners, but in reverse order.[3]

Because of wear, over 400 different plates were used to print the Penny Red. Two different basic watermarks were used for the paper, small crown (on the early issues) and large crown, introduced on 15 May 1855. The first stamps printed on the large crown watermarked paper showed two small vertical lines in the central portion of the crown (Type 1). Later printings showed a revised watermark on which these central lines are not present (Type 2).

Stamps from some of the individual plate numbers, such as plate 77, are very rare[4] and in 2016, an example from this plate was auctioned for £495,000.[5]

Withdrawal

[edit]

The era of the Penny Red came to its close at the end of 1879, along with Perkins Bacon's contract. It was superseded by the Penny Venetian Red printed by De La Rue, which was in use for a little over a year before being succeeded in turn by the long-lived Penny Lilac. Since then, the stamp has become in demand amongst stamp collectors.

Chronology

[edit]
  • 10 February 1841 – first issue: colour of 1d stamp changed from black to red-brown.[6]
  • 1848 – Plates 70 and 71 were rouletted by Henry Archer
  • 1850 – Some Alphabet 1 plates were perforated 16 by Henry Archer
  • 24 February 1854 – perforations 16 introduced on all Alphabet II plates.[7]
  • January 1855[8] – perforation size changed from 16 to 14.
  • 15 May 1855[9] – watermark changed from small crown to large crown.
  • August 1855 – Alphabet III introduced
  • 1 April 1864 – Letters in all four corners and plate number engraved on each stamp from plate 71 onwards.[2]
  • 27 October 1879 – last plate (225) put to press.
  • 3 December 1879 – contract to print the Penny Red formally ended.[10]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Penny Red

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Penny Red is a postage stamp issued by the from February 1841 to November 1879, featuring a profile portrait of engraved by and printed in red-brown ink on paper valued at one penny for prepaid postage on standard letters weighing up to half an ounce. Introduced just nine months after the groundbreaking , the Penny Red addressed a key flaw in its predecessor: the black stamp's red cancellations could be chemically removed for reuse, leading to and revenue loss for the . The new design inverted the colors, using a red stamp with black postmarks that were highly visible and resistant to washing off, while also incorporating security elements like cancellations initially and later numeral obliterators. Printed by Perkins, & Co. using intaglio methods on sheets of 240 stamps arranged in 20 rows of 12, it became the workhorse of the British postal system during a period of rapid mail volume growth driven by industrialization and rising . Over its 38-year run, approximately 21 billion examples were produced across more than 400 printing plates, making it one of the most issued stamps in history. The Penny Red evolved through three main types to improve usability and security: imperforate versions from 1841 to 1854, which required manual separation with scissors and used plates 1 through 177; early perforated "Stars" issues from 1854 to 1864 with 16-gauge or 14-gauge perforations and either small or large crown watermarks; and later perforated "Plates" from 1858 to 1879, featuring plate numbers (71 to 225) printed in the scrollwork of the side borders alongside identifying letters (e.g., AA to TL) in the corners for tracking production errors. These variations, including subtle shade differences and watermark changes, contribute to its enduring appeal in philately, where common examples in fine condition fetch £10 or less, but rarities like the 1863 Plate 77—known from only about five used copies due to a printing anomaly and subsequent destruction—have sold for up to £550,000 at auction. As a cornerstone of adhesive postage innovation, the Penny Red symbolizes the Victorian era's postal reforms and remains a collector's staple for its historical significance and intricate production details.

Introduction and Design

Overview

The Penny Red was a British postage stamp issued from February 10, 1841, to October 27, 1879, serving as the successor to the and functioning as the principal denomination for the one-penny inland postage rate throughout its run. This long-lived issue addressed a key limitation of the by employing red-brown ink, which allowed black postmarks to stand out clearly and deter reuse more effectively. Printed by Perkins, Bacon & Co., the Penny Red saw massive production, with around 21 billion stamps released in sheets of 240 to meet the demands of the expanding postal system. The design centered on a profile portrait of a young , derived from an engraving by , the engraver of the Royal Mint, which provided a consistent and recognizable royal iconography. Initially issued as imperforate stamps, the Penny Red transitioned to perforated versions beginning in 1854 to facilitate separation from sheets. For precise identification of each stamp's position on the printing plate, unique alphabetic letters ranging from AA to TL were incorporated into the corners of every example.

Design Features

The Penny Red stamp features an engraved portrait of in left-facing profile, derived from William Wyon's "City Medal" design of 1834, and executed by engraver Frederick Heath under the supervision of his father, Charles Heath. This line-engraved artwork, measuring approximately 20 mm in width by 24 mm in height, incorporates fine, intricate shading and cross-hatching to create a detailed oval frame around the queen's head, serving as a security measure against counterfeiting by making replication difficult without specialized equipment. The overall composition emphasizes security and uniformity, with the portrait centered against a white engine-turned background of swirling guilloche patterns. The stamp's layout places the denomination "ONE PENNY" arched in the upper left and right corners, flanking the portrait, while "POSTAGE" appears straight across the bottom in bold letters to denote its official use. Corner check letters (e.g., AA, AB) indicate the stamp's position within the sheet of 240, initially limited to the lower corners in early printings before expanding to all four for enhanced identification. These elements, combined with ornamental lace-like borders on the sides, maintain a balanced, rectangular format that evolved minimally from the Penny Black while addressing visibility issues with postmarks. Two primary dies were used in production, reflecting refinements to the . Die I, employed from the stamp's debut in , positions the check letters closely adjacent to the frame borders, with subtler shading in the queen's hair and nostril. Die II, introduced later that year, repositions the check letters farther from the frame—typically by a measurable gap of about 0.5 —and features deeper lines, including distinct double lines in the hair beneath the "A" in "POSTAGE," for improved durability during printing. This transition allowed for clearer impressions over extended runs without significant wear. Color variations emerged due to changes in ink formulations aimed at achieving consistent reproduction on blued paper. Initial printings used a brownish-red , with variations over time including rose-red shades in mid-1840s imperforates and warmer brick-red to imperial red tones in later perforated issues from the , to improve consistency and durability. These shades, while subtle, are key identifiers for philatelists, with rose-red examples rarer in later plates due to the preference for more stable reds.

Production Techniques

Printing Methods

The Penny Red was produced using intaglio printing, a line-engraving technique that involved recessing the design into copper plates to create raised ink impressions under high pressure. This method, employed by Perkins, Bacon & Co. at their premises in , allowed for the detailed reproduction of Queen Victoria's profile, ensuring durability and security against counterfeiting. The stamps were printed on handmade paper, which was dampened during the process to facilitate ink adhesion and prevent distortion, a standard practice for intaglio work at the time. Printing occurred in sheets of 240 stamps, arranged in 20 horizontal rows of 12, using these copper plates that gradually wore from repeated impressions, necessitating periodic repairs and re-engraving to maintain print quality. The red-brown ink, formulated for permanence and visibility, was applied via specialized high-pressure presses that forced it into the plate's recessed lines, producing the characteristic embossed effect. Over the lifespan of the issue, approximately 21 billion stamps were produced through this labor-intensive process. Quality control was rigorous, involving inspection of plates for defects such as cracks or irregularities before approval by via sheets, with flawed plates repaired or rejected to uphold standards. Hand-finishing of sheet edges and manual checks for printing anomalies ensured consistency, though minor repairs to plates often introduced subtle varieties. Initially, cancellations were applied by hand-stamping, such as the in black ink to contrast the red stamp; later, machine-based numeral and duplex cancellations were adopted for efficiency, adapting to the ink's color for better obliteration.

Perforations and Watermarks

The Penny Red stamps were initially issued as imperforate sheets from 1841 to 1854, requiring separation by or, in experimental trials, by to create partial separations along the edges. Experimental , developed as an early method to facilitate separation without full cutting, were tested around 1850 by inventor Henry Archer, though they did not enter widespread use. Full perforations were introduced experimentally in using gauge 16, which measured 16 holes per 2 centimeters, but official implementation occurred in with the same gauge to streamline postal handling by allowing quick and uniform detachment of individual stamps. In 1855, the gauge shifted to 14 for enhanced durability and reduced tearing during processing, a change that persisted through later productions printed by Perkins, Bacon & Co. This innovation significantly accelerated operations, minimizing the time clerks spent cutting sheets manually. Early Penny Red issues from lacked watermarks, relying solely on the for authenticity. Starting in 1855, a small watermark was incorporated into the to deter by making replication more difficult, with a notable blued paper variety appearing due to chemical reactions during production. By 1856, the watermark evolved to a larger , accompanied by alphabet variations in the corner lettering (such as Alphabet III and IV, featuring refined styles for plate identification), further bolstering security against counterfeiting. These watermarks served primarily as anti- measures, embedding a visible yet subtle feature into the stamp itself.

Issuance and Variations

Initial Release

The Penny Red, Great Britain's second postage stamp, was first issued on February 10, 1841, just nine months after the debut of the . It replaced the earlier stamp primarily because the red ink used for cancellations was difficult to discern against the black design of the , leading to issues with reuse via chemical removal and verification. The new stamp employed a brownish-red ink to ensure black postmarks were clearly visible, enhancing security and operational efficiency within the postal system. Featuring the same engraved portrait of as its predecessor, the imperforate Penny Red was printed on sheets by Perkins, Bacon & Co. and sold at post offices for 1d per stamp, with full sheets of 240 stamps available for £1 or individual rows of 12 for . It was intended for the uniform penny post rate, covering domestic letters weighing up to half an ounce, and was cancelled using the device in black ink to align with the new color scheme. This cancellation method, officially adopted in black from February 1841, marked a shift from the red crosses used on the . The imperforate version continued in production until 1854, with perforated "" issues introduced experimentally from 1850 using similar plates. The Penny Red saw rapid adoption, becoming the cornerstone of Britain's prepaid postage system and demonstrating the success of Rowland Hill's reforms. Over its lifespan from to , approximately 21 billion stamps were produced, reflecting high demand and widespread use in everyday mail. Early production stabilized quickly, addressing minor inconsistencies in ink application common to the transitional period, and the stamp's reliability contributed to a surge in postal volumes during its initial years.

Plate Numbers and Varieties

The Penny Red was printed using over 400 different plates throughout its production, with numbering beginning sequentially and continuing up to at least Plate 225 for the later perforated issues, though some gaps exist in the sequence due to rejected or unused plates. Early plates, prior to , lacked printed plate numbers in the margins and were identified retrospectively through plating characteristics such as check letter positions and guide-line flaws; from Plate 71 onward, starting April 1, , plate numbers were engraved in the side margins in (for Plates 71–225). These later plates integrated with perforations introduced in 1854 and watermarks from 1855, appearing on issues with letters in all four corners. Two primary dies were employed for the portrait of : Die I, which dominated production from the stamp's introduction in 1841 until late 1854, and Die II, introduced in January 1855 following retouching by engraver William Humphrys to address wear and enhance detail in the head and hairlines, resulting in wider and more defined check letters in the corners. Die I was used for the majority of early production (plates 1 to approximately 170), while Die II was used for later plates starting from 1855, with the total plate numbers reaching 225; many of which showed progressive wear leading to varieties. Plate varieties arose from manufacturing processes, including cracks in the plate during etching, subsequent repairs by hand-punching or recutting lines (such as recut corner frames or side framelines), and basal shifts where entire rows of check letters misaligned due to punch errors. Alphabet shifts in check letters, particularly noticeable in Alphabet II (used on Plates 132–175), involved changes in letter spacing and font thickness from hand-punched alterations to extend plate life. A notable example is Plate 77, rendered extremely rare by transfer roller errors during plate preparation, including a missing "B" check letter in the lower-left corner of the first position (known as the "B blank" variety) and other double-transfer flaws; only a single sheet was believed printed before the plate was withdrawn, with fewer than 15 genuine examples verified. Identification of specific plates relies on the corner check letters, which denote position on the 20-by-12 stamp sheet: the left-side letters indicate the row (A for the top row, progressing to T at the bottom), while the right-side letters indicate the column (A for the leftmost, to L for the rightmost), allowing reconstruction of sheet layouts. Errors such as inverted check letters (e.g., upside-down punches) or double letters from overlapping transfers further distinguish varieties, often appearing in specific positions like the upper-right corner on early Die I plates.

Withdrawal and Legacy

Reasons for Phasing Out

By the 1870s, the line-engraved printing method used for the by Perkins, Bacon & Co. had become increasingly inefficient due to significant plate wear and the surging demand for stamps driven by expanded postal usage. The original die's design led to weakened impressions, particularly in the queen's head on later plates like 195, necessitating frequent re-engraving by artists such as William Humphrys to deepen lines and maintain clarity, but this process could not keep pace with production needs. Concurrently, Rowland Hill's uniform penny postage reforms of had dramatically increased mail volumes—multiplying usage rapidly as the system became accessible to the general public—outstripping the capacity of intaglio printing, which required multiple plates (ultimately 225 for the Die II series) and limited output despite scaling up to 38 printing machines by 1878. Additionally, the red-brown ink employed for the Penny Red, formulated as a type to deter removal of cancellations through chemical cleaning, presented ongoing issues with color fading under certain postmarks, particularly black duplex or numeral cancellations that could cause the shade to appear washed out or inconsistent over time. This, combined with economic pressures, prompted a shift to surface methods, which were faster, less labor-intensive, and more cost-effective for high-volume production, allowing competitors like to secure the contract through superior efficiency demonstrated at exhibitions. The line-engraved Penny Red's 38-year run thus highlighted its longevity but also underscored the limitations of its technology in an era of postal expansion. Production concluded with the final print run of Plate 225 on October 27, 1879, after which Perkins, Bacon's contract formally ended on December 3, 1879, and remaining were depleted through usage rather than immediate withdrawal. Philatelists at the time observed declining quality in these later plates, with blurred impressions and softer details becoming more prevalent, signaling the stamp's terminal phase and fueling interest in varieties from earlier, crisper printings.

Replacement Stamps

The Penny Red was succeeded by the Penny Venetian Red, a one-penny stamp issued on 1 January 1880 and printed by using surface printing methods with simpler typography, while retaining an overall similar profile of . Production of the Penny Red ended the previous year in October 1879, ensuring no overlap in manufacturing between the two issues, though existing stocks of the Penny Red continued to circulate alongside the newcomer until depleted. The Penny Venetian Red served briefly until July 1881, when it gave way to the Penny Lilac, which featured updated designs and shades. This was followed by the issue of 1887, which expanded to multiple colors and varied designs across low denominations, reflecting a broader evolution in British stamp . Successor stamps preserved the one-penny rate for inland postage but shifted decisively from the intaglio line-engraving of the Penny Red to surface printing, enabling greater efficiency in to meet rising postal demands.

Philatelic Significance

Collecting and Identification

Collecting Penny Red stamps requires careful attention to several key identification features to ensure authenticity and proper classification within a collection. The corner check letters, such as AA, AB, or TJ, indicate the stamp's position on the printing sheet and are essential for plating, as each combination is unique across the 240 stamps per sheet. Distinguishing between Die I and Die II involves examining subtle differences in the Queen's profile: in Die I, the nostril is straighter, while in Die II it is more curved, and additional lines appear under the "A" in "POSTAGE" within the hairline. Perforation status is another critical identifier; imperforate examples from 1841 to 1854 lack perforations and were separated by hand, whereas perforated versions began in 1854 with a gauge of 16 (scarcer) and shifted to gauge 14 thereafter, measurable using a standard perforation gauge tool like the Instanta. Collectors often focus on specific scopes to build targeted collections, balancing accessibility with rarity. Imperforate Penny Reds, prized for their historical significance as the earliest issues, contrast with the more abundant perforated varieties, which include "Stars" types from 1854-1864 and later "Plate" types from 1858-1879. Watermarks provide further differentiation, with early imperforates typically lacking them, while later perforated issues feature small crown (upright or inverted) or large crown varieties, often corresponding to alphabet styles I through IV in the check letters (e.g., alphabets A-E in early sequences). Both used (postally cancelled) and mint (unused with original gum) conditions are pursued, though mint examples command premiums due to their scarcity, particularly for high-plate numbers like those from 132 onward with Alphabet II letters. Standard resources aid in cataloguing and verification, with the Great Britain Specialised Catalogue assigning numbers such as SG 8 for the imperforate Plate 1 red-brown to SG 108 for late perforated varieties, enabling precise by plate, shade, and condition. Magnification tools, such as a 10x , are recommended for detecting plate flaws like retouches or cracks, which vary by plate number and require comparison against reference sheets. Common pitfalls include distinguishing forgeries and fakes, particularly of scarce plates like 77, which mimic check letters poorly; authentication is best achieved through certificates from the Royal Philatelic Society London (RPSL), whose expert committee verifies genuineness via detailed examination of , , and . Modern tools enhance identification efficiency, including digital scanners for pixel-accurate measurement of check letter spacing to confirm die type and plate position, as in the GBPS Penny Red Plating Tool. Watermark detection has advanced with devices like the Sherlock Watermark Detector, which uses LED illumination to reveal crown patterns without chemicals, and online databases such as the Penny Red Four-Corner Visual Identification Program, which reconstructs plates by uploading cropped stamp images for automated matching against a database of 36,240 positions from plates 71-225.

Rarity, Values, and Notable Sales

The Penny Red stamp's rarity is primarily determined by specific plate numbers and production anomalies, with Plate 77 standing out as the scarcest variety due to its rejection during printing in 1863 for irregular head placements and perforation issues, resulting in only about 9 known examples worldwide, including five used ones. Imprimaturs—trial sheets printed before official production—from early plates are also highly scarce, such as the unique SG43 example from Plate 211 AA, which features imperforate margins and no plate number, making it a key item for advanced collectors. Other notable rarities include early imperforate plates like 1 through 11, where constant varieties such as re-entries or frame breaks further elevate scarcity, though these are far less common than later perforated issues. Market values for Penny Red stamps vary widely based on condition, type, and variety, with common used imperforate examples typically fetching £0.50 to £5 depending on margins and cancellation clarity. Mint hinged specimens from early perforated plates, such as Plate 1, command premiums exceeding £5,000 in superior condition with full original gum, while mid-plate used perforated lots from the often realize £50 to £500 at . Key factors influencing value include overall condition—such as precise centering, undisturbed gum, and minimal faults—as well as cancellation type, with scarce Maltese crosses or numeral obliterators adding 20-50% premiums over standard black duplex postmarks. Demand for error varieties like shifted perforations or inverted watermarks has risen amid the expansion of digital platforms. Notable sales underscore the stamp's investment appeal, including a used Plate 77 example that achieved £495,000 at a 2016 Stanley Gibbons auction, marking it as the UK's second-most valuable stamp at the time. In 2023, Grosvenor Philatelic Auctions featured mid-plate Penny Reds in lots averaging £150-£300, with a fine used Plate 36 realizing £150, while Richard Winterton Auctioneers reported mixed lots of common varieties selling for around £200 on average. More recently, a used Plate 77 example on its original cover was listed for private sale at £650,000 in 2024 by Paul Fraser Collectibles, highlighting sustained high-end interest. Online platforms like eBay continue to dominate commons, with used perforated singles trading for £1-£10, contrasting with premium venues like Sotheby's or Spink for rares exceeding £10,000. A 2025 Facebook group auction for the SG43 Plate 211 AA imprimatur started at £900, reflecting accessible entry points for specialized varieties.

References

  1. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/211423
  2. https://www.stanleygibbons.com/collecting-stamps/new-to-stamps/penny-red-stamps
  3. https://www.warwickandwarwick.com/news/guides/the-penny-red-stamps-guide
  4. https://armchairphilately.com/2021/10/27/penny-red-valuation/
  5. https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/the-queen%25E2%2580%2599s-own-postal-reforms-that-transformed-the-mail/introducing-the-penny-red
  6. https://www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk/journal/guest-articles/penny-black/
  7. https://www.stanleygibbons.com/collecting-stamps/dispatches/how-to-collect-penny-reds
  8. https://www.gbps.org.uk/information/downloads/postal-museum/PHT%20Victorian%20Era%20of%20British%20Stamps%20%28Muir%2C%202004%208pp%29.pdf
  9. https://www.stanleygibbons.com/collecting-stamps/dispatches/creating-penny-black
  10. http://pennyreds.co.uk/Tips-for-platers
  11. http://pennyreds.co.uk/Shades-Papers
  12. https://www.collectors-club-of-great-britain.co.uk/collecting/penny-red-stamp/
  13. https://www.spink.com/media/view?id=534
  14. https://www.spink.com/lot/12021484
  15. https://www.mysticstamp.com/8-1854-great-britain/
  16. http://www.sturstamps.com/stamps/reds_c7.htm
  17. https://brixtonchrome.com/blogs/classic-worldwide-stamps-1840-1940/the-perforated-penny-red-stars-of-great-britain-1854-1864
  18. https://thecollectorsshopblackrock.wordpress.com/2020/04/16/irish-postal-history-irish-maltese-cross-cancels/
  19. https://news.justcollecting.com/penny-red-stamp-that-shouldnt-exist-set-to-spark-650k-collector-frenzy/
  20. http://www.stampnewsonline.net/StampNewsOnline-PW/YesterdayinMekeels/YIM_2014/YIM_0114_Penny_Red.pdf
  21. https://brixtonchrome.com/blogs/classic-worldwide-stamps-1840-1940/the-imperforate-penny-reds-of-great-britain-1841-1854
  22. https://www.rpsl.org.uk/rpsl/Displays/Handouts/DISP_19730315_001.pdf
  23. https://www.postalmuseum.org/collections/highlights/letter-boxes/
  24. https://www.philatelicspecialistssociety.com/presentations.php?file=086-%5BNOWROTH%5D-The-First-Four.pdf
  25. https://www.gbps.org.uk/publications/journal/pdfs/gbj-50-1.pdf
  26. https://www.tonylester.co.uk/news/celebrating-the-175th-anniversary-of-the-penny-red-stamp
  27. https://stampssa.africa/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/GB-From-Line-Engraved-to-Surface-Printed-The-1879-1880-Tenders.pdf
  28. https://www.rpsl.org.uk/
  29. https://www.gbps.org.uk/tools/plating/instructions.php
  30. https://www.pennyredfourcorner.com/pdf/penny-red-visual-identification.pdf
  31. https://www.amosadvantage.com/product/sherlock-watermark-detector
  32. https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/uks-rarest-stamp-shouldnt-exist-33201714
  33. https://www.facebook.com/groups/stampauctions/posts/1199485505434373/
  34. https://postalhistorygb.com/product-category/gb3-all-gb-1d-one-penny-reds/
  35. https://www.theguardian.com/money/2016/mar/10/plate-77-penny-red-uk-second-most-valuable-stamp-495000
  36. https://www.grosvenorauctions.com/auctions/historic-summary?GB_sub_cat_code=1841%2BOne%2BPenny%2BRed-Brown%2Band%2BTwo%2BPence%2BBlue
  37. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/article/2024/jul/10/in-for-a-penny-red-uks-most-valuable-stamp-goes-up-for-sale-at-650000
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