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Peripteros
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In Classical architecture, a peripteros (Ancient Greek: περίπτερος; see peripterous) is a type of ancient Greek or Roman temple surrounded by a portico with columns. It is surrounded by a colonnade (pteron) on all four sides of the cella (naos), creating a four-sided arcade, or peristyle (peristasis).[1] By extension, it also means simply the perimeter of a building (typically a classical temple), when that perimeter is made up of columns.[2] The term is frequently used of buildings in the Doric order.[2]
Definition
[edit]The peripteros can be a portico, a kiosk, or a chapel. If it is made up of four columns, it is a tetrastyle; of six, hexastyle; of eight, octastyle; of ten, decastyle; and of twelve, dodecastyle.[1] If the columns are fitted into the wall instead of standing alone, the building is a pseudoperipteros.[1][3]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Smith, William; Wayte, William; Marindin, G. D., eds. (1890). "Templum". A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Albemarie St.: John Murray.
- ^ a b Reber, Franz von; Joseph Thacher Clarke (1882). History of Ancient Art. University of Wisconsin - Madison: Harper & Brothers. pp. 419–420. Retrieved 2007-11-06.
peripteros.
- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Pseudo-peripteral". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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Peripteros
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Terminology
Etymology
The term peripteros originates from ancient Greek, derived from peri (περί), meaning "around" or "about," and pteron (πτερόν), meaning "wing" or "feather," yielding a literal translation of "winged around" or "flying around." This etymology evocatively captures the architectural feature of a single row of columns encircling the temple structure, likened to wings enveloping the core building.[4][1] The earliest attested usage of the term appears in its Latinized form in the first century BCE treatise De Architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius Pollio, who employs "peripteros" to classify temple types surrounded by a portico on all sides, distinguishing it from forms like the prostylos or dipteros.[5] In the 19th century, the term gained prominence in modern archaeological and architectural scholarship through German studies of classical antiquity, notably formalized by Karl Bötticher in his comprehensive work Die Tektonik der Hellenen (1874), where "Peripteros" is used to denote the canonical Greek temple plan with a peripheral colonnade.[6][3]Definition
A peripteros is a type of ancient Greek temple featuring a rectangular naos, or cella, enclosed by a single peristyle of free-standing columns on all four sides, forming an ambulatory portico around the central chamber without an inner colonnade.[1][3] This design, derived from the Greek word pteron meaning "wing," emphasizes a unified encircling colonnade that provides both structural support and a processional space for worshippers.[1] The form extended to Roman architecture, where it influenced temple designs with similar peristyle arrangements.[7] Pseudodipteral variants of the peripteros maintain the single outer colonnade but incorporate wider intercolumniations mimicking the spacing of a double-row dipteros, yet the overall structure remains classified as peripteral due to its encircling form.[8] This adaptation allowed for larger cellae without adding a full second colonnade, optimizing space while preserving the aesthetic of a surrounded sanctuary.[9] By the Classical period, peripteroi typically adhered to standard proportions of 6 columns across the facade and 13 along the flanks for Doric examples, or 8 by 17 for larger Ionic and Corinthian variants, reflecting harmonic ratios outlined in architectural treatises attributed to Iktinos, co-designer of the Parthenon.[3][10] These ratios ensured visual balance and structural integrity, with equal spacing between columns and from the peristyle to the cella walls in mature designs.[3]Architectural Characteristics
Plan and Layout
The peripteral temple employs a rectangular ground plan organized along a longitudinal axis, with the naos serving as the central inner chamber housing the cult statue, flanked frontally by the pronaos—a porch typically framed by columns in antis—and rearward by the opisthodomos, a symmetrical chamber often functioning as a treasury or storage space. This core arrangement is fully encircled by a peristyle, or pteron, forming a colonnaded walkway that defines the peripteral form and allows for ritual circumambulation around the structure. The peristyle's width varies to accommodate processional movement, generally providing a spacious yet contained ambulatory space integral to the temple's spatial flow. Proportional design principles underpin the layout, utilizing a module derived from the lower diameter (LD) of the columns to establish harmonious ratios across the structure; for instance, the stylobate's length is calibrated as a multiple of the LD, ensuring balanced scaling between the naos, porches, and surrounding colonnade.[13] Columns within the peristyle incorporate entasis—a gentle outward curve along the shaft—to apply optical corrections, mitigating the visual distortion that would otherwise make straight columns appear concave from a distance.[14] These refinements contribute to the overall perceptual stability of the temple's form, with the single-row column arrangement of the peristyle directly encasing the naos without additional inner rows. The roof adopts a gabled configuration, pitched to shed rainwater while framing triangular pediments at each end, supported by raking cornices that extend the entablature upward.[13] Akroteria, sculptural ornaments, are positioned at the pediment apex and lower corners to accentuate vertical emphasis and symmetry, aligning axially with the temple's core elements for a unified compositional effect.[14] This overhead structure reinforces the plan's bilateral symmetry, culminating in a cohesive architectural envelope that integrates the interior sanctuary with its exterior processional path.Column Arrangement
In peripteral temples, the column arrangement forms a peristyle, consisting of free-standing columns encircling the naos on all four sides, with the corner columns shared between adjacent facades to create a unified colonnade.[15] Common configurations include hexastyle fronts with six columns across the facade and thirteen columns along each side (including the corner columns), or octastyle fronts with eight columns and typically seventeen along the sides, depending on the temple's proportions.[16] Intercolumniation, the spacing between adjacent columns, is generally 2 to 2.5 times the lower diameter of the columns, often following the eustyle proportion of approximately 2.25 diameters to balance aesthetic harmony and structural stability. The architectural orders employed in peripteral columns are predominantly Doric in Archaic and Classical examples, characterized by sturdy shafts without bases that rest directly on the stylobate, featuring 20 shallow flutes meeting at sharp arrises for a robust appearance.[17] Ionic order columns, more common in eastern Greek peripteral temples, exhibit taller proportions with bases, volute capitals, and 24 deeper flutes separated by flat fillets, introducing greater elegance and verticality.[18] Corinthian columns, with their ornate acanthus-leaf capitals, appear in later Hellenistic peripteral designs, maintaining similar fluting to the Ionic but adding intricate foliage for decorative emphasis.[19] Structurally, these columns bear the weight of the architrave and entablature, distributing loads from the roof while providing visual rhythm around the temple; in Doric peripteroi, the frieze above incorporates triglyphs aligned over the columns and metopes in the intercolumniations to reinforce the order's geometric logic.[19] Adaptations in pseudoperipteral forms, where side and rear columns are engaged or attached to the cella walls rather than free-standing, reduce material use while mimicking the peristyle's encircling effect, though this variant is less common in pure Greek peripteral architecture.[20]Historical Development
Origins in Archaic Period
The origins of the peripteral temple design can be traced to the Archaic period (c. 800–480 BCE), when Greek architecture transitioned from rudimentary wooden and mud-brick structures to more monumental stone constructions. Early proto-peripteral developments evolved from apsidal-ended wooden buildings and Mycenaean megaron layouts, which featured a central rectangular hall flanked by a porch supported by columns in antis. These forms, dating back to the Late Bronze Age, provided the foundational plan for later temples, with the addition of surrounding colonnades emerging as an experimental feature in the 7th century BCE. For instance, the early peristyle at the sanctuary of Thermon in Aetolia, associated with the Temple of Apollo (c. 630–610 BCE), represents one of the earliest attempts at encircling columns, though still transitional in form and materials.[21][22] This shift marked a departure from simpler apsidal or prostylos designs, where columns were limited to the facade, toward full perimeter enclosures that enhanced the temple's visual prominence and structural integrity.[1] A pivotal innovation occurred with the introduction of stone colonnades in the Doric order during the late 7th to early 6th centuries BCE, signifying the maturation of peripteral architecture. The Heraion at Olympia (c. 600–590 BCE), dedicated to Hera, stands as one of the earliest fully peripteral Doric temples, initially constructed with wooden columns that were gradually replaced by stone, forming a hexastyle arrangement with six columns across the facade and sixteen along the sides. This design fully encased the cella, creating a shaded ambulatory space around the sacred interior and elevating the structure's aesthetic and symbolic scale. Similarly, the Temple of Hera on Corfu (c. 590 BCE) exemplifies this transition, employing stone Doric columns to encircle the naos, moving beyond prostylos precedents like earlier wooden shrines and establishing the peripteral form as a standard for monumental dedications. These innovations reflected advances in quarrying and masonry techniques, allowing for larger, more durable buildings that could withstand environmental stresses.[23][24][25] The emergence of peripteral designs was influenced by both indigenous Mycenaean precedents and Near Eastern inspirations encountered through trade and colonization, which encouraged the adoption of surrounding colonnades for ritual circumambulation and visual enclosure. The megaron’s axial layout informed the temple's internal organization, while these external motifs contributed to the evolution of the peristyle. Socio-politically, these early peripteral temples served as grand dedications by emerging city-states (poleis), symbolizing communal piety, territorial claims, and elite patronage in an era of political consolidation. Erected often with public funds from tyrants or aristocratic groups, they reinforced social cohesion and divine favor, as seen in Olympia's Heraion, which anchored pan-Hellenic festivals and interstate alliances.[26][27][28]Classical and Hellenistic Periods
During the Classical period (5th century BCE), the peripteros temple reached its zenith as a standardized form, institutionalized through the works of prominent architects such as Iktinos and Kallikrates, who integrated these structures into urban sanctuaries like those on the Athenian Acropolis to enhance civic and religious cohesion.[29][1] This era emphasized optical refinements to counteract visual distortions, including subtle curvatures in column bases and stylobates, ensuring the temples appeared perfectly harmonious from afar.[30][31] In the Hellenistic period (late 4th to 2nd centuries BCE), peripteros designs expanded in scale and incorporated Doric and Ionic orders, exemplified in structures at Pergamon that reflected evolving aesthetic preferences.[32][33] This diversification was spurred by the conquests of Alexander the Great and his successors, which led to a surge in temple dedications honoring Hellenistic rulers and deities, symbolizing political legitimacy and cultural patronage across expanded territories.[34][1] By the late Hellenistic period and into the 1st century BCE, the pure Greek peripteros began to decline as Romans adopted and hybridized the form, elevating temples on high podiums and altering column arrangements, a process codified in Vitruvius' De Architectura, which described the peripteros as having six columns at the front and rear with eleven on each side.[35][36][37] This Roman adaptation marked a transition toward more pragmatic and imperial architectural expressions, diminishing the strict peripteral ideal in favor of versatile hybrids.[38]Notable Examples
In Mainland Greece
The Parthenon in Athens, constructed between 447 and 432 BCE, exemplifies the Doric peripteral temple form during the High Classical period.[39] This octastyle structure features eight columns across the east and west facades and seventeen along the north and south sides, creating a peristyle that surrounds the cella dedicated to Athena Parthenos.[39] The temple's stylobate measures approximately 69.5 meters in length by 30.9 meters in width, with columns rising to about 10.4 meters in height.[40] Its sculptural program, overseen by Phidias, includes metopes depicting mythological battles, pedimental scenes of Athena's birth and contest with Poseidon, and an Ionic frieze portraying the Panathenaic procession, all embodying the Periclean vision of Athenian democracy and imperial power.[39][41] The Temple of Zeus at Olympia, built around 470–457 BCE, represents an earlier Classical Doric peripteral temple that served as the cult center for the Olympic Games.[42] Designed by Libon of Elis as a hexastyle structure, it has six columns on the short sides and thirteen on the long sides, with the overall plan spanning 64.1 meters in length by 27.7 meters in width.[42] The temple housed Phidias's colossal chryselephantine statue of Zeus, seated and holding Nike in one hand and a scepter in the other, standing about 13 meters tall including the base.[42] Its pediments featured sculptures of the Centauromachy on the west and the chariot race between Pelops and Oinomaos on the east, while metopes illustrated the labors of Herakles, highlighting themes of heroism and divine order central to the sanctuary's religious and athletic significance.[42][43] The Temple of Aphaia on Aegina, dating to circa 500 BCE, marks a transitional peripteral Doric temple bridging Archaic and Classical styles.[44] This hexastyle structure employs a 6 by 12 column arrangement on a platform of about 28.8 by 13.7 meters, evolving from earlier prostylos forms to a full peristyle that enhanced its visibility on the island's hilltop.[45] The east pediment sculptures, in an early Classical style around 480 BCE, depict the sack of Troy with Athena at the center and more naturalistic figures, including a dying warrior showing anatomical realism.[44] In contrast, the west pediment, closer to 490 BCE, retains Archaic traits like rigid poses and the "archaic smile" in its Trojan War scenes, illustrating stylistic evolution within the same monument dedicated to the local goddess Aphaia.[44]In Asia Minor and Islands
In Asia Minor and the Aegean islands, peripteral temples exemplified the Ionic order's emphasis on elegance and proportion, adapting to local topography and cultural influences distinct from the mainland's Doric robustness. These structures often featured slender columns with volute capitals, elongated plans, and innovative foundations to suit coastal or elevated sites, reflecting Ionia's prosperity from maritime trade.[19] Further exemplifying Hellenistic precision, the Temple of Athena at Priene, built circa 340 BCE by architect Pytheos, stands as a hexastyle peripteral Ionic temple perched on the city's steep acropolis. Its column grid followed a meticulous 6 by 11 arrangement, with slender shafts rising to about 10 meters and voluted capitals emphasizing verticality against the rugged hillside. Integrated into Priene's orthogonal urban grid—itself a Hellenistic innovation—this temple aligned axially with the agora below, facilitating processional views and civic cohesion in the planned Milesian colony.[46][47] The Temple of Apollo Smintheus in the Troad region of Asia Minor, constructed around 150–70 BCE, is a well-preserved example of a Late Hellenistic peripteral Ionic temple. This hexastyle structure features six columns on the facades and thirteen on the flanks, with a stylobate measuring approximately 32.5 by 14.5 meters. Dedicated to Apollo as protector from mice (smintheus), it incorporates elaborate Ionic details and served as a regional cult center, showcasing the continued use of the peripteral form in Roman-era Greek architecture.[48]Comparisons and Variations
Versus Other Temple Types
The peripteros, characterized by a single row of free-standing columns encircling all four sides of the temple, contrasts with the prostylos and amphiprostyle forms, which feature colonnades limited to the front (prostylos) or both front and rear (amphiprostyle).[49] These simpler designs, often employing columns in antis or between projecting antae walls, were typically reserved for smaller shrines or less prominent dedications, prioritizing economy and direct access over expansive visual impact.[50] In contrast, the peripteros achieves greater monumentality through its complete peristyle, which envelops the naos and creates a more imposing silhouette suitable for major civic or religious centers.[51] Compared to the dipteros, which employs double colonnades around the entire structure, the peripteros offers a more compact layout with a narrower pteron—the space between the columns and cella walls—facilitating tighter integration into urban or terraced sanctuaries.[52] The dipteros, exemplified by the original Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, provides broader ambulatory areas that accommodated ritual processions and enhanced grandeur in expansive, often extra-urban settings, particularly in Asia Minor during the Archaic and Classical periods.[49] This double-layered arrangement demanded significantly more resources, making the single-colonnade peripteros a more practical choice for widespread adoption in mainland Greece.[51] The pseudoperipteros differs from the peripteros by using engaged columns—half-columns attached directly to the side and rear walls—rather than freestanding ones, thereby simulating the encircling effect while conserving materials and internal space.[49] This adaptation, common in Roman-era temples, emphasized aesthetic continuity with peripteral ideals but prioritized functional efficiency in constrained sites. The peripteros, by insisting on detached columns, upholds a purer expression of optical refinement and shadow play, underscoring its role as the canonical form for evoking divine enclosure and visual harmony.[49]Regional and Chronological Adaptations
In the Greek world, peripteral temple design exhibited distinct regional adaptations between the Doric order predominant on the mainland and the Ionic order favored in Ionia and Asia Minor. Doric peripteroi, such as the Parthenon in Athens, featured stockier columns with a height-to-diameter ratio typically around 5:1 to 6:1, emphasizing structural solidity and closer intercolumniations for a compact, robust appearance suited to the rugged terrain and aesthetic preferences of mainland Greece.[1] In contrast, Ionian examples in Asia Minor, like the Archaic Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, employed taller, more slender Ionic columns with ratios often exceeding 8:1, allowing for broader intercolumniations that enhanced spatial openness and elegance, reflecting the wealthier, more ornate architectural traditions influenced by eastern contacts.[1][53] During the Hellenistic period, peripteral forms evolved toward greater grandeur, with a shift from Doric and Ionic toward the emerging Corinthian order to accommodate elaborate sculptural programs and heightened visual impact. This transition is evident in temples like the Olympieion in Athens, initiated around 174 BCE, where Corinthian columns—characterized by acanthus-leaf capitals—replaced simpler orders, enabling taller structures and more decorative entablatures that symbolized royal patronage and cultural synthesis across the expanded Hellenistic kingdoms.[54] Roman adoption of peripteral design incorporated Etruscan influences, resulting in variants that prioritized frontal emphasis and elevated platforms over the Greek stylobate. Etruscan temples, such as those at Tarquinia, often featured prostyle or partial peripteral plans with the Tuscan order—simpler, unfluted columns—and deep porches, which Romans adapted into pseudoperipteral forms where engaged columns flanked the cella walls, as seen in the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, a hexastyle Corinthian pseudoperipteros completed around 4–7 CE on a 2.85-meter-high podium that elevated the structure for processional access.[55][56] This podium base, a hallmark of Italic adaptations, replaced the low Greek stylobate, aligning with Roman urban forums and Etruscan ritual practices focused on the facade.[55] In the 18th and 19th centuries, neoclassical revivals drew on peripteral and pseudoperipteral prototypes to evoke democratic ideals and classical antiquity, particularly in the United States. Thomas Jefferson, inspired by his 1785 visit to the Maison Carrée, modeled the Virginia State Capitol (1785–1792) on its pseudoperipteral form, using Corinthian pilasters and a pedimented portico to symbolize republican governance, while broader Greek Revival applications appeared in public buildings like banks and courthouses with full peripteral colonnades.[57] Modern archaeological restorations, such as those at the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion (completed in the 5th century BCE), prioritize reconstructing original peripteral configurations using anastylosis—reassembling extant fragments—to preserve authenticity and educate on ancient forms, as guided by international charters like the Venice Charter of 1964.[58]References
- https://brittlebooks.library.[illinois](/page/Illinois).edu/brittlebooks_closed/Books2011-12/adrewi0001arcanc/adrewi0001arcanc.pdf
- https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/[Vitruvius](/page/Vitruvius)/4*.html