Process design kit

A Process Design Kit (PDK) is a collection of files, tools, and documentation provided by a semiconductor foundry to model a specific fabrication process, enabling designers to create and verify integrated circuits (ICs) that are compatible with the foundry's manufacturing technology.^[1][2] PDKs serve as the critical interface between electronic design automation (EDA) software and the physical constraints of semiconductor production, ensuring that circuit designs adhere to precise rules for layout, simulation, and fabrication to achieve high yield and performance.^[3][4] Developed by foundries such as TSMC or GlobalFoundries, a PDK encapsulates proprietary process-specific information, including device models for transistors and other components, which allow for accurate behavioral simulation before tape-out.^[5] Key components typically include:

• Design rules: Minimum feature sizes, spacing, and layer alignments to prevent manufacturing defects.^[1]
• Technology files: Definitions of process layers, materials, and etching parameters for layout tools like Cadence Virtuoso.^[6]
• Simulation models: SPICE-compatible models for active and passive devices to predict electrical performance.^[1]
• Verification decks: Scripts and setups for design rule checking (DRC), layout-versus-schematic (LVS), and parasitic extraction.^[1]
• Documentation and guides: Detailed manuals on process capabilities, recommended practices, and qualification procedures.^[1]

By standardizing access to these elements, PDKs facilitate collaboration in the fabless semiconductor model, where designers license the kit under non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) to protect intellectual property while enabling rapid iteration and cost-effective prototyping.^[3][7] In advanced nodes (e.g., below 7nm), PDKs incorporate complex modeling for effects like finFET variability or EUV lithography, underscoring their role in sustaining Moore's Law amid escalating design complexity.^[8] Due to their inclusion of controlled technology, PDKs are subject to export regulations, such as those under the U.S. Export Administration Regulations (EAR), classifying them under ECCNs like 3E001 for sensitive applications in computing and defense.^[3][8]

Overview

Definition

A Process Design Kit (PDK) is a hierarchical collection of digital and analog files provided by semiconductor foundries to accurately model the characteristics of their specific fabrication process technology for use in electronic design automation (EDA) tools.^[4] These kits encompass the necessary data and parameters to represent the physical and electrical behaviors of components within a given manufacturing process, enabling designers to create layouts and simulations that align with the foundry's capabilities.^[2] Key characteristics of a PDK include its process-specific nature, incorporating parameterized cells (PCells), schematic symbols, and device parameters tailored for elements such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors.^[9] PCells allow for scalable and customizable representations of these devices, adjusting geometry and properties based on design inputs to ensure compliance with the technology's constraints.^[10] In distinction from broader or generic design kits, a PDK is intrinsically linked to a particular manufacturing node—such as 7 nm or 5 nm—and the proprietary processes of a specific foundry, like TSMC or GlobalFoundries, making it non-transferable across different technologies or providers.^[5] This specificity ensures that designs produced using the PDK can be reliably manufactured without requiring additional adaptations.^[3] PDKs play a critical role in integrated circuit (IC) design by facilitating accurate simulation and verification of circuits before physical fabrication.^[11]

Purpose and Importance

The primary purpose of a Process Design Kit (PDK) is to equip integrated circuit (IC) designers with foundry-specific process data, including device models, design rules, and verification tools, enabling accurate simulation, layout, and verification of circuits prior to fabrication. This facilitates the creation of designs that align closely with the target manufacturing process, promoting first-time-right silicon outcomes where the initial fabricated chips meet performance specifications without requiring redesigns.^[12][13] PDKs play a critical role in streamlining the IC design process by shortening development cycles through automated verification and reference flows, while minimizing expensive respins caused by process mismatches or yield issues. They support multi-project wafer (MPW) runs, allowing multiple designs from different users to share a single wafer for prototyping, which significantly reduces costs and accelerates validation for early-stage projects. Additionally, PDKs ensure compatibility with advanced nodes, such as those below 20 nm, by incorporating precise rules for lithography, variability modeling, and manufacturability checks tailored to complex fabrication technologies.^[12][14][15] The importance of PDKs extends to the broader semiconductor ecosystem, particularly for fabless companies that outsource manufacturing to pure-play foundries, as they provide a secure interface to proprietary process technologies without exposing sensitive fabrication details. This separation of design and production has fueled the fabless model, lowering barriers to entry and enabling rapid innovation in a competitive market. By underpinning efficient design practices, PDKs contribute to the sustained growth of the global semiconductor industry, with sales forecasted to reach $700.9 billion in 2025 according to the World Semiconductor Trade Statistics (WSTS) Spring 2025 report, driven by demand for advanced chips in AI, automotive, and computing applications.^[7][16]

Components

Device Models and Libraries

Device models and libraries form the core of a Process Design Kit (PDK), providing SPICE-compatible representations of semiconductor devices to enable accurate circuit simulation and behavioral prediction. These models capture the electrical characteristics of both active and passive components, allowing designers to evaluate performance metrics such as current-voltage relationships, capacitances, and noise under various operating conditions. For active devices like MOSFETs, industry-standard compact models such as BSIM (Berkeley Short-channel IGFET Model) and PSP (Penn State Philips model) are commonly included, formulated as sets of physics-based equations implemented in SPICE netlists. BSIM models, developed by the BSIM Group at UC Berkeley, offer scalable and robust simulations for bulk, SOI, and multi-gate MOSFETs, supporting advanced nodes down to 7 nm and below, and are endorsed by the Compact Model Coalition (CMC) as a foundational standard for IC design. Similarly, the PSP model, a surface-potential-based approach jointly developed by NXP Semiconductors and CEA-Leti, provides precise modeling of weak-to-strong inversion transitions, mobility degradation, velocity saturation, and non-quasi-static effects, making it suitable for analog, RF, and digital applications.^[17][18][19] Passive devices in PDKs are modeled with SPICE subcircuits that account for frequency-dependent behaviors, parasitics, and quality factors essential for RF and mixed-signal designs. Examples include inductors modeled using scalable geometries with thick metal layers to achieve high Q-factors (>10 at GHz frequencies), varactors represented as voltage-dependent capacitors with junction or MOS structures, resistors with sheet resistance variations, and capacitors like metal-insulator-metal (MIM) types offering densities of 1-2 fF/μm². These models are derived from foundry measurements and integrated into PDKs to support tools like Cadence Spectre or Synopsys HSPICE, ensuring consistency with active device simulations. For instance, Fujitsu's RF CMOS PDKs include such passive models optimized for integration with active components in silicon processes.^[20][21] Parameterized cell (PCell) libraries within PDKs facilitate automated layout generation, allowing users to create customizable instances of devices and interconnects without manual drawing. In Cadence Virtuoso environments, PCells are typically scripted in SKILL, a Lisp-like language that defines parametric rules for geometry, such as width, length, and finger count for transistors or spiral patterns for inductors, enabling hierarchical and scalable designs. This approach improves productivity by generating layout views on-the-fly, complete with abstract and symbol representations for schematic-driven layout. For open-source or KLayout-based PDKs, Python scripting is increasingly used via libraries like phidl, supporting photonic and IC components with functions for instantiation and testing, as seen in NIST's OLMAC PDK for superconducting nanowire devices.^[22][23] To address process variations, PDKs incorporate statistical models that enable Monte Carlo simulations and corner analysis, quantifying uncertainties from manufacturing fluctuations. Statistical models use parameterized distributions for parameters like threshold voltage and mobility, allowing simulations of thousands of samples to predict yield and mismatch effects. Corner cases, such as TT (typical-typical), FF (fast-fast), and SS (slow-slow), represent extreme global variations: TT for nominal conditions, FF for high-speed/low-leakage scenarios with elevated drive currents, and SS for conservative timing with reduced performance. These are implemented in SPICE decks, often alongside local mismatch models, as exemplified in the ASAP7 predictive PDK for 7-nm FinFETs, where FF and SS corners result in shifts in Idsat relative to TT. Such models are crucial for robust design margins in advanced nodes.^[24]

Design Rules and Technology Files

The Design Rule Manual (DRM) is a foundational document in a Process Design Kit (PDK) that specifies the physical and layout constraints derived from the semiconductor fabrication process to ensure reliable manufacturability and high yield. It details minimum feature widths, spacings between elements, and enclosure requirements for layers such as polysilicon, metals, and contacts, which are enforced through design rule checks (DRC) in electronic design automation (EDA) tools. In industry practice, the DRM translates complex manufacturing limitations into a structured set of rules, addressing challenges like lithography alignment and etching variations, as demonstrated in the development of open-source libraries for advanced nodes.^[25] For a representative example in a generic 45 nm CMOS process, the minimum poly width is 0.06 µm, poly-to-poly spacing is 0.06 µm, and contacts (0.07 µm × 0.07 µm) must be fully enclosed by overlying poly to prevent exposure during etching.^[26] Technology files, often provided in formats like .tf for Cadence Virtuoso environments, extend these constraints by defining process-specific layer properties, visual attributes, and additional verification rules within the PDK. These files map layers to GDSII stream numbers and data types (e.g., Nwell as layer 2/0, poly as 3/0, Metal1 as 7/0), specify display colors, line styles, and fill patterns for layout editors, and incorporate density requirements to avoid issues like chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) dishing or erosion.^[27] Density rules typically mandate minimum and maximum metal fill percentages within defined areas, such as 20-80% for Metal1 in a 90 nm generic PDK, to maintain uniform planarization. Antenna rules, integrated into these files, mitigate plasma-induced charging damage by limiting the ratio of exposed interconnect area (e.g., metal perimeter) to connected gate poly area, with thresholds like a maximum effective gate area ratio (EGAR) of 50 for poly layers and up to 400 for Metal1 in open PDKs.^[28] These rules often include provisions for protective diodes to extend allowable interconnect lengths, such as up to 4280 µm for Metal1 with a diode in a 130 nm process.^[28] Layer Exchange Format (LEF) files in a PDK deliver abstracted physical data for backend design flows, focusing on routing, placement, and timing analysis without revealing proprietary layout details. They include technology sections defining layer properties—such as routing layers with direction (horizontal or vertical), width (e.g., 0.23 µm), spacing (0.23 µm), and pitch (0.56 µm)—along with via rules for interconnect generation, including cut sizes and enclosure overhangs (e.g., 0.05 µm).^[29] Macro sections specify cell boundaries, obstruction areas, and pin locations through PORT statements with rectangular or polygonal geometries, such as RECT 0.190 2.380 0.470 2.660 on a metal layer, ensuring tools can identify connection points and enforce spacing to obstructions. Site definitions outline placement grids, like a core site with CLASS CORE; SIZE 4.0 BY 7.0; SYMMETRY X Y, which supports row-based standard cell alignment and symmetry for optimized floorplanning.^[29] These elements collectively enable automated place-and-route tools to adhere to process constraints while integrating briefly with device models for holistic verification.^[27]

Verification and Support Elements

Verification and support elements in a Process Design Kit (PDK) encompass the auxiliary files and rule sets that enable designers to validate circuit layouts against manufacturing constraints and extract essential performance data. These components are crucial for ensuring design manufacturability, reliability, and accuracy in post-layout analysis, typically provided by foundries in formats compatible with leading electronic design automation (EDA) tools.^[30] Design Rule Check (DRC) and Layout versus Schematic (LVS) rule decks form the core of physical verification within PDKs, automating the detection of layout violations and connectivity mismatches. DRC rule decks, often supplied in formats for tools like Siemens Calibre or Cadence Assura, enforce process-specific geometric and spacing rules to prevent fabrication issues such as shorts or opens.^[31][32] For instance, Calibre DRC decks process GDSII or OASIS files to flag violations against thousands of rules derived from the technology node, ensuring compliance with foundry specifications.^[33] LVS rule decks, similarly formatted, compare the extracted netlist from the layout against the schematic to verify topological equivalence, identifying errors like missing connections or unintended shorts.^[33] These decks are typically hierarchical, supporting efficient verification of large-scale designs in batch or interactive modes.^[32] Extraction files in PDKs facilitate the generation of parasitic resistance-capacitance (RC) networks and timing models, critical for post-layout simulation and signoff. Parasitic extraction rule decks, such as those for Synopsys StarRC, enable the computation of interconnect parasitics from layout geometries, accounting for process variations like coupling capacitance and resistance in advanced nodes.^[34] These files output SPEF or DSPF formats for integration into timing analysis tools, providing silicon-accurate models that influence signal integrity and power estimates.^[35] Timing models, commonly delivered as Liberty (.lib) files, encapsulate cell-level delay, setup/hold times, and power characteristics under varying conditions, derived from foundry-characterized silicon data.^[36] These .lib files support liberty variation format (LVF) for process-voltage-temperature (PVT) corners, ensuring robust static timing analysis in tools like Synopsys PrimeTime.^[37] Optional elements in PDKs address specialized reliability and density concerns, including dummy fill rules and electromigration (EM) checks. Dummy fill rule decks guide the automated insertion of non-functional metal shapes to meet density requirements, mitigating issues like chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) dishing without altering electrical performance; these rules specify placement constraints tied to technology layers.^[38] EM check files, often integrated into DRC or dedicated verification flows, evaluate current densities in interconnects to prevent voiding or hillocking, using process-specific thresholds for wire widths and temperatures.^[39] Such elements are particularly emphasized in mature nodes where reliability scales with feature size.^[40]

Development and Provision

Foundry Role

Semiconductor foundries, such as TSMC and Intel, are responsible for developing Process Design Kits (PDKs) based on their proprietary manufacturing process recipes, which encompass detailed specifications for transistor structures, interconnect layers, and other fabrication elements. These PDKs are meticulously crafted to reflect the foundry's unique technology capabilities, enabling designers to create layouts that align precisely with the foundry's production parameters.^[41] Validation of PDKs occurs through extensive silicon test wafers, where fabricated prototypes are measured against simulated models to achieve high model-to-hardware correlation, ensuring accuracy in performance predictions for parameters like speed, power, and yield. This process involves iterative testing, including electrical characterization up to high frequencies for RF applications, and incorporates reference test structures to refine device models and design rules. Foundries emphasize continuous improvement via these test sites to support first-pass silicon success.^[41] PDK release cycles are closely aligned with advancements in technology nodes, with updates provided as processes mature to incorporate yield enhancements and new features. For instance, following the adoption of FinFET processes after 2011, foundries like TSMC issued periodic updates to PDKs for nodes such as 16nm and 7nm to enable early design starts. Intel similarly released the 18A PDK version 1.0 in July 2024, timed for high-volume manufacturing in 2025, demonstrating how releases support rapid node transitions.^[42][43] To ensure seamless integration, foundries collaborate extensively with Electronic Design Automation (EDA) vendors, such as Cadence and Synopsys, to certify PDK compatibility with simulation, layout, and verification tools. This partnership includes the development of PDK validation kits, which provide standardized test benches and flows to verify interoperability across the design ecosystem, reducing development costs and accelerating time-to-market. For example, Intel's 18A PDK has been optimized through joint efforts with multiple EDA providers to deliver certified solutions for AI-driven designs.^[44][45][46]

Access and Customization

Access to process design kits (PDKs) is typically restricted for commercial variants to protect proprietary foundry information, requiring designers to sign non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) or design kit license agreements (DKLAs) before obtaining the files.^[47][48] These agreements often accompany paid licenses, which can involve substantial fees to cover the development and support costs associated with the technology.^[49] In contrast, open-source PDKs like the SkyWater 130 nm process provide free access without NDAs, available directly from repositories such as GitHub, enabling broader use in academia and research.^[36][50] Customization of PDKs allows designers to tailor the kit to specific project requirements, such as integrating additional intellectual property (IP) blocks to expand functionality while adhering to the core process rules.^[51] Retargeting involves adapting the PDK for process derivatives, for example, modifying it to support high-voltage options by adjusting device models and design rules for enhanced electrical tolerance.^[52] Designers may also develop process design systems (PDS) as customized extensions of the PDK, incorporating specialized verification flows or additional libraries to streamline targeted applications.^[14] To safeguard sensitive foundry intellectual property, PDKs incorporate security measures including encrypted model files that prevent unauthorized extraction or reverse engineering during simulation.^[53] Access controls, such as license-based protections and restricted distribution, further limit usage to authorized users and environments, often integrated with electronic design automation (EDA) tools to enforce compliance.^[54][55]

Integration and Application

Compatibility with EDA Tools

Process design kits (PDKs) are engineered to integrate seamlessly with leading electronic design automation (EDA) suites, enabling designers to leverage foundry-specific process technologies within established workflows. Major EDA vendors, including Cadence, Synopsys, and Siemens EDA (formerly Mentor Graphics), provide certified support for PDKs in their flagship tools. For instance, Cadence's Virtuoso platform is widely utilized for custom IC layout and schematic capture, with PDKs from foundries like Tower Semiconductor and United Microelectronics Corporation (UMC) offering full compatibility, including interoperability with Keysight ADS for mixed-signal simulations.^[56][57] Similarly, Synopsys' Custom Compiler supports PDK-driven design for advanced nodes, such as TSMC's 7nm FinFET processes (as certified in 2016), through certified libraries and simulation models.^[58] More recently, Synopsys tools have been certified for TSMC's 3nm process nodes.^[59] Siemens EDA's Calibre suite excels in physical verification, integrating PDK rule decks for design rule checking (DRC), layout-versus-schematic (LVS), and parasitic extraction, as demonstrated in collaborations with GlobalFoundries for their 22FDX platform (as of 2015).^[60] As of 2025, Siemens has introduced AI-enhanced EDA tools that improve PDK-based verification workflows for semiconductor design.^[61] Standardized file formats underpin this compatibility, ensuring that PDK components can be imported and utilized across tools without significant reconfiguration. Layout data within PDKs is commonly provided in OASIS (Open Artwork System Interchange Standard) format, a binary standard optimized for compressing complex mask data and reducing file sizes compared to legacy GDSII, which facilitates efficient handling in tools like Virtuoso and Custom Compiler.^[62] Behavioral and compact models, essential for circuit simulation, are often delivered in Verilog-A or Verilog-AMS formats, enabling hardware description language-based representations that integrate with simulators such as Cadence Spectre or Synopsys HSPICE.^[63] These formats, combined with OpenAccess database structures, allow PDKs to include technology files, device parameters, and callbacks (e.g., in Tcl or SKILL) that are directly loadable into EDA environments.^[13] Despite these advancements, challenges persist in multi-vendor design flows, particularly regarding PDK portability across disparate EDA tools. Proprietary PDKs tailored to a single vendor, such as those optimized solely for Virtuoso, can introduce integration hurdles when migrating designs to Synopsys or Siemens tools, potentially requiring manual adjustments to callbacks, netlisting, or parameter mappings.^[64] To mitigate this, foundries have adopted interoperable PDK (iPDK) standards based on the OpenAccess coalition's database schema, which supports unified access to design data across Cadence, Synopsys, and Mentor tools, as pioneered by TSMC for its 65nm process in 2009 and extended by GlobalFoundries for 22FDX in the mid-2010s.^[44][65] This approach has evolved to support newer nodes, such as TSMC's 3nm processes, and includes platforms like Wave Photonics' PDK Management Platform (launched August 2025) for multi-EDA tool mapping.^[66] Additionally, efforts in high-precision PDKs for 2nm gate-all-around (GAA) chips, as in the Rapidus-Keysight collaboration (September 2025), further enhance interoperability.^[67] These developments reduce development costs and enhance flexibility but still demand rigorous validation to ensure consistent performance in mixed-tool environments.

Role in Design Workflow

In the integrated circuit (IC) design workflow, the Process Design Kit (PDK) serves as the foundational bridge between conceptual design and manufacturable hardware, guiding engineers through sequential stages from initial schematic development to final tape-out.^[1] During schematic capture, designers utilize PDK-provided symbols and parameterized cells (PCells) as building blocks to represent devices like transistors and interconnects, enabling the creation of circuit netlists that incorporate process-specific parameters for early functional verification.^[68] These symbols ensure logical connectivity and facilitate integration with electronic design automation (EDA) tools for hierarchical design representation.^[13] Following schematic entry, the layout phase leverages PDK elements such as PCells for generating scalable, process-compliant geometries and design rule checking (DRC) decks to enforce foundry-specific constraints like minimum feature sizes and spacing requirements.^[1] This stage transforms the abstract schematic into a physical mask layout, where PCells allow parametric adjustments to optimize area and performance while maintaining manufacturability.^[68] Post-layout, simulation incorporates PDK-derived extracted nets, including parasitic resistances, capacitances, and inductances, to model real-world behavior through tools that predict timing, power, and signal integrity.^[13] Sign-off verification integrates PDK verification decks for comprehensive checks, including layout-versus-schematic (LVS) comparisons to confirm topological fidelity and DRC runs to validate adherence to fabrication rules.^[1] These steps ensure the design meets reliability and yield criteria before proceeding. The tape-out process culminates in generating GDSII or OASIS files from the verified layout, strictly adhering to PDK rules for direct submission to the foundry, minimizing fabrication risks.^[68] Throughout the workflow, iteration loops are essential for optimization, such as timing closure, where PDK timing arcs—pre-characterized delay models for standard cells—are used to analyze and refine critical paths via repeated simulations and layout adjustments.^[1] This iterative refinement, often involving multiple DRC/LVS cycles, addresses discrepancies in performance metrics until convergence on a tape-out-ready design.^[13]

History and Evolution

Origins

The concept of the process design kit (PDK) emerged in the 1980s alongside the maturation of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication processes and the development of electronic design automation (EDA) tools. These kits provided designers with essential models, rules, and libraries to simulate and layout integrated circuits (ICs) compatible with foundry processes, addressing the growing complexity of custom chip design. A foundational EDA tool influencing early PDKs was SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis), originally developed at the University of California, Berkeley in 1970 as a circuit simulation program to model transistor-level behavior in ICs.^[69] SPICE's public-domain release in 1972 enabled widespread adoption for verifying CMOS designs, laying the groundwork for PDK components like device models.^[70] A pivotal milestone in PDK origins was the establishment of MOSIS (MOS Implementation Service) in 1981, funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) through the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute. MOSIS acted as a "silicon broker," aggregating small-scale academic and research designs onto multi-project wafers to reduce fabrication costs—often to 5-10% of full-wafer expenses—and shorten turnaround times to about 10 weeks. It provided early process kits, including design rules and SPICE-compatible models for CMOS technologies at 3-5 micron nodes, primarily to support DARPA's VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) program objectives for custom ICs in defense and academic applications.^[71][72] These rule-based PDKs focused on geometric constraints for layout (e.g., minimum feature sizes and spacing) to ensure manufacturability, driven by the need for reliable prototyping in university VLSI courses and government-funded projects.^[73] By the 1990s, PDKs evolved toward greater standardization as the fabless semiconductor model gained traction, exemplified by the founding of Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) in 1987 and the subsequent proliferation of design houses unburdened by fabrication facilities. This shift necessitated interoperable formats for design data exchange, leading to the widespread adoption of Caltech Intermediate Form (CIF) for hierarchical layout descriptions—developed in the 1970s but refined for PDK integration—and Graphic Design System II (GDSII), a binary stream format originating in 1971 that became the industry de facto standard for mask data by the mid-1990s.^[73][74] These formats enabled PDKs to abstract process specifics while supporting the fabless ecosystem's growth, which saw companies like ATI and Xilinx leverage foundry PDKs for rapid IC development without in-house manufacturing.^[75]

Modern Advancements

Since the early 2010s, process design kits (PDKs) have shifted toward predictive models to address the complexities of sub-10nm nodes, incorporating simulations of advanced fabrication techniques like extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography, which became integral to high-volume manufacturing starting around 2018 for 7nm processes.^[76] This evolution began with the introduction of FinFET architectures in 2011, prompting the development of specialized PDKs such as FreePDK15 in 2015, which provided open-source predictive rules and models for 15nm FinFET devices to enable early design exploration without proprietary foundry access. Subsequent advancements included the ASAP7 PDK in 2016 for 7nm FinFET, featuring compact models that accounted for process variations and EUV-related effects like line-edge roughness.^[24] By the early 2020s, PDKs extended to gate-all-around (GAA) transistors, with Samsung releasing a 3nm GAA PDK in 2019 to support nanosheet structures for improved electrostatic control and scaling beyond FinFET limits.^[77] A significant milestone in PDK accessibility occurred in 2020 with the launch of the Google-SkyWater collaboration, introducing the SKY130 open-source PDK for a 130nm mixed-signal CMOS process, which democratized chip design by providing freely available design rules, device models, and verification scripts without non-disclosure agreements.^[36] This initiative facilitated rapid prototyping and education, enabling multi-project wafer runs and fostering innovation in custom ASICs among academia and startups.^[78] As of 2025, emerging PDK trends emphasize AI and machine learning integration for enhanced variation prediction, with generative models improving statistical circuit analysis by simulating process-induced fluctuations more accurately than traditional Monte Carlo methods.^[79] PDKs are also expanding support for photonics and 3D integrated circuits, exemplified by AIM Photonics' open-access component libraries for photonic integrated circuits and Imec's 2024 design pathfinding PDK for the N2 node, which includes models for backside power delivery to enable denser 3D architectures.^[80][81] Additionally, sustainability-driven low-power rules are being incorporated into advanced PDKs, prioritizing energy-efficient transistor configurations and leakage minimization to reduce overall chip power consumption in line with industry goals for greener semiconductor manufacturing.^[82]