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Pulp noir is a subgenre influenced by various "noir" genres, as well as (as implied by its name) pulp fiction genres; particularly the hard-boiled genres which help give rise to film noir.[1] Pulp noir is marked by its use of classic noir techniques, but with urban influences. Various media include film, illustrations, photographs and videogames.

In film

[edit]

Whereas film noir directly involves characters living bleak existences to accomplish a goal with odds against them, pulp noir often portrays a grittier, one-man army. Typically, the main character has no distinguishing abilities, but can hold ground against seemingly impossible odds. Pulp noir locations are often seedy, run-down and degradated urban landscapes, where the lack of law, morals and even the proliferation of crime and drugs are common themes. Another common trend in pulp noir is the glorification and/or demonization of its urban locations.[citation needed]

Examples

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In other media

[edit]

Some illustrations and photographs are described as being pulp noir. Recently, some video games, such as the Max Payne third-person shooter series, have been portrayed in a film noir style, using heavy, gritty, dirty urban themes. SF Weekly journalist Matt Smith used the term to describe the act of "sprinting to the crime scene, skidding on my heels, and yelling at everyone and nobody in particular: 'Who's in charge here?'" [20]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pulp noir

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Pulp noir is a subgenre of crime fiction that originated in the inexpensive pulp magazines of the early 20th century, blending the sensationalism of pulp storytelling with the dark, psychological depth and moral ambiguity characteristic of noir narratives, often depicting flawed protagonists entangled in urban crime, obsession, and inevitable downfall.[1][2] It emerged primarily through magazines like Black Mask, which popularized hard-boiled detective stories amid the Prohibition era's lawlessness, evolving from straightforward adventure tales into more introspective explorations of human despair and societal margins.[1] The history of pulp noir traces back to the proliferation of pulp magazines in the 1920s and 1930s, when publications printed on cheap wood-pulp paper sold for a dime and reached massive audiences during the Great Depression, with Black Mask achieving circulations over 100,000 copies by the early 1930s.[1] Key developments included the introduction of hard-boiled elements by authors like Carroll John Daly in 1922 and Dashiell Hammett in 1923, whose stories featured tough, cynical detectives confronting corruption, laying the groundwork for noir's fatalistic tone.[1] By the 1930s and 1940s, writers such as Cornell Woolrich shifted focus toward psychological anxiety and inescapable fate, as seen in his short stories and novels serialized in pulps, which emphasized internal torment over external action and influenced the transition to paperback originals and film adaptations.[3] The genre's decline mirrored that of pulp magazines in the 1950s, due to competition from comic books, paperbacks, and wartime paper shortages, though its legacy persisted in film noir and later neo-noir works.[1] Notable authors of pulp noir include Dashiell Hammett, whose Red Harvest (1929) exemplified gritty realism drawn from his Pinkerton detective experience, and Raymond Chandler, who debuted Philip Marlowe in The Big Sleep (1939) after honing his style in Black Mask.[1] David Goodis contributed haunting tales of obsession and self-destruction, such as Dark Passage (1946), set in gritty Philadelphia locales and later adapted into films, highlighting the genre's emphasis on psychic wounds and marginal figures like alcoholics and petty criminals.[2] Other figures like Jim Thompson and Chester Himes extended pulp noir's boundaries with sociopathic protagonists and social critique, often exploring themes of alienation and control in mid-century America.[2] These works, with their poetic yet hard-hitting prose, not only defined the subgenre but also bridged literature and cinema, inspiring adaptations like François Truffaut's Shoot the Piano Player (1960) from Goodis's Down There (1956).[2]

Definition and Origins

Definition

Pulp noir is a subgenre of pulp fiction that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by gritty, crime-focused narratives serialized in inexpensive pulp magazines from the 1920s through the 1950s. These stories typically blend the hard-boiled detective tradition—featuring tough, cynical protagonists navigating corruption—with noir's overarching sense of fatalism and inevitable downfall, often set against seedy urban backdrops. Pioneered in publications like Black Mask, which shifted from general adventure tales to emphasize realistic, violent crime fiction starting in the early 1920s, pulp noir prioritized sensational plots and moral complexity to captivate working-class readers.[4][5] At its core, pulp noir embodies sensationalism through fast-paced, action-driven storytelling that revels in violence, betrayal, and psychological tension, while incorporating moral ambiguity where heroes and villains blur into shades of gray. Narratives frequently explore urban decay, with decaying cityscapes symbolizing societal rot and personal despair, and protagonists—often flawed detectives or antiheroes—grappling with inescapable fates amid corruption and deceit. This subgenre targeted mass audiences via low-cost, high-volume production on cheap wood-pulp paper, allowing for lurid covers and exploitative content that heightened emotional dread and suspense without the polish of literary fiction.[4][6][7] The term "pulp noir" is often used retrospectively to describe hard-boiled crime stories in pulp magazines that incorporate noir elements like psychological depth and fatalism.[8] Pulp noir distinguishes itself from broader pulp fiction, which encompassed diverse genres like science fiction, adventure, and romance in magazines such as Argosy, by its exclusive focus on dark crime elements and psychological realism rather than escapist heroism. Authors like Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler, whose serializations in pulps like Black Mask helped define the subgenre, later developed more literary novels that evolved these themes.[6]

Historical Origins

The pulp magazine industry emerged in the early 20th century as a response to the demand for affordable, serialized fiction, evolving from the cheaper production methods of dime novels that had dominated the late 19th century. These early pulps, printed on low-grade wood pulp paper to reduce costs, allowed publishers to distribute mass-market stories widely. Black Mask, launched in April 1920 by journalists H.L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan as a venue for diverse genres including crime fiction, became a pivotal outlet for gritty narratives.[9][10] Weird Tales followed in March 1923, initially focusing on supernatural and horror elements but contributing to the broader pulp ecosystem that fostered genre experimentation, including early detective tales.[11] This transition from dime novels—short, sensational pamphlets popular since the 1860s—to pulps marked a shift toward more specialized magazines that could sustain ongoing series and character-driven stories, appealing to urban readers seeking escapism amid social upheaval. The dime novel tradition of adventure and crime provided a foundation, but pulps like Black Mask amplified the realism and immediacy of urban vice, reflecting the era's anxieties.[10][12] Prohibition, enacted in 1920 and lasting until 1933, fueled a surge in organized crime, bootlegging, and corruption, which directly inspired pulp writers to depict tough protagonists battling mobsters and outlaws in seedy cityscapes. The subsequent Great Depression, beginning in 1929, intensified economic despair and unemployment, prompting pulps to offer cathartic tales of hard-nosed detectives navigating moral ambiguity and societal breakdown during the 1920s and 1930s.[13][14] These socio-economic pressures shaped the genre's formative years, blending real-world grit with fictional retribution.[15] A key milestone in pulp noir's origins came with Carroll John Daly's "The False Burton Combs," published in the December 1922 issue of Black Mask, widely recognized as the first hard-boiled detective story for introducing a nameless, violent operative who operates outside traditional law enforcement norms. This tale exemplified the genre's pivot toward terse, action-oriented prose that prioritized street-level realism over genteel mystery solving.[16][17] By the mid-1930s, such stories had solidified pulp noir as a distinct strand within the pulp landscape, influencing subsequent crime fiction.[18]

Characteristics

Literary Elements

Pulp noir employs hard-boiled prose distinguished by its terse, laconic style, characterized by short sentences that convey immediacy and toughness.[19] This approach draws on vernacular dialogue filled with slang and colloquialisms, reflecting the gritty speech of urban underclass characters and enhancing authenticity.[20] First-person narration from cynical protagonists, often private investigators, dominates, providing an intimate, subjective view that underscores their alienation and moral detachment.[21] Structurally, pulp noir stories frequently incorporate serialized formats to sustain reader engagement across magazine issues, a necessity driven by the monthly publication cycle of outlets like Black Mask.[22] Plot twists, particularly those involving double-crosses and betrayals among corrupt figures, propel the narrative forward, creating layers of deception that mirror the genre's themes of mistrust.[20] Rapid pacing is essential, with concise action sequences and minimal exposition tailored to the limited word counts of pulp novelettes and short stories, ensuring high tension within the constraints of inexpensive magazine production.[19] Iconic tropes in pulp noir include shadowy, decaying urban settings that evoke isolation and peril, such as fog-shrouded streets or dimly lit back alleys, amplifying the atmosphere of corruption.[21] Unreliable narrators, whose biased perspectives obscure truths and heighten suspense, are prevalent, often revealing their flaws through introspective asides.[22] Graphic violence, depicted with stark realism including beatings and shootings, is a staple, adapted to the low-fidelity printing of pulp paper that prioritized sensational impact over subtlety.[20] These elements collectively foster moral ambiguity in plots, where clear resolutions are rare.[19]

Common Themes and Motifs

Pulp noir literature frequently explores the corruption of the American Dream, portraying protagonists who pursue success only to encounter systemic deceit and moral decay that undermines ideals of opportunity and justice.[23] This theme manifests as a critique of unchecked ambition in a flawed society, where individual efforts lead to entrapment rather than triumph.[23] Existential despair permeates these narratives, with characters grappling with a sense of meaninglessness and inevitable downfall in a hostile world.[23] The hard-boiled narration style often amplifies this fatalism through cynical, first-person voices that underscore the futility of resistance.[23] Gender dynamics in pulp noir highlight tense power imbalances, featuring the archetype of the femme fatale—a seductive, manipulative woman who exploits male vulnerabilities to advance her own agenda.[23] These women embody danger and allure, often leading to the emasculation of heroes who, despite their toughness, reveal underlying fragility and dependence.[24] Such portrayals reflect broader anxieties about masculinity in a changing social order, where traditional male authority is eroded by feminine cunning and societal pressures.[24] Recurring motifs include rain-slicked streets that symbolize isolation and moral ambiguity, evoking a perpetual state of unease in urban landscapes.[23] Seedy underworlds serve as backdrops for clandestine dealings, amplifying the genre's gritty realism and the protagonist's immersion in vice.[23] Betrayal emerges as a constant threat, fracturing alliances and trust, while fatalistic endings—often involving downfall or death—mirror post-World War II disillusionment with progress and stability.[23][25] Pulp noir offers pointed social commentary on capitalism, depicting it as a force that fosters greed, inequality, and exploitation among the working class and elite alike.[23] Police corruption is a staple, illustrating institutional failure and the blurring of lines between law enforcers and criminals in a distrustful society.[23] Urban alienation dominates, with cities portrayed as impersonal mazes that estrange individuals, heightening feelings of loneliness and disconnection during the 1930s and 1950s.[23][26]

Key Figures and Works

Prominent Authors

Dashiell Hammett (1894–1961) is widely regarded as the pioneer of the hard-boiled detective genre, drawing on his prior experience as a Pinkerton operative to craft authentic, gritty narratives for pulp magazines. Beginning in 1922, he contributed prolifically to Black Mask, where his stories emphasized terse prose, moral ambiguity, and urban realism, setting the tone for the publication's shift toward tougher crime fiction. Hammett introduced the Continental Op, an unnamed agency detective, in his debut Black Mask tale "Arson Plus" (October 1923), published under the pseudonym Peter Collinson; the character appeared in 28 stories through the 1930s, influencing countless subsequent pulp protagonists with his detached professionalism and encounters with corruption.[27][5] Raymond Chandler (1888–1959) entered pulp writing in the early 1930s after financial setbacks in the oil business, initially producing short stories for magazines like Black Mask and Dime Detective. He elevated the genre's literary standing by infusing it with poetic metaphors, social critique, and complex characterizations, transitioning from anonymous "hack" work to acclaimed novels. Chandler created the iconic private investigator Philip Marlowe, a chivalrous yet world-weary figure, who debuted in his first novel, The Big Sleep (1939), marking a pivotal shift from serialized pulp to mainstream publishing success.[28][29] Paul Cain, the pseudonym of artist and screenwriter Peter Ruric (1904–1979), exemplified the ultra-hard-boiled extreme in the early 1930s, debuting in Black Mask with the serialized novel Fast One (March–September 1932). His minimalist style, featuring amoral antiheroes like gangster Gerry Kells amid relentless violence and betrayal, pushed pulp noir toward greater cynicism and pace; Black Mask editor Joseph T. Shaw praised Cain's work for its "grim hardness," and Raymond Chandler later hailed Fast One (published as a novel in 1933) as a "high point in the ultra hard-boiled manner." Cain published 14 stories, mostly in Black Mask through 1936, before largely abandoning fiction for screenwriting.[30] Erle Stanley Gardner (1889–1970), a California attorney who practiced law while writing, became one of pulp's most prolific contributors, churning out approximately 600 stories, novelettes, and serials from 1921 to 1936 under at least eight pseudonyms, including Charles M. Green, A.A. Fair, and Carleton Kendrake. He sold steadily to Black Mask, Argosy, and Clues, often placing multiple pieces per month and peaking at over a million words annually in the late 1920s, earning up to $20,000 in a single year by 1932 through his self-described "fiction factory" approach. Gardner's pulp output, including series like the thief-detective Ed Jenkins and the police procedural Ken Corning, showcased rapid plotting, sharp dialogue, and legal intrigue that foreshadowed his mainstream breakthrough with the Perry Mason novels starting in 1933.[31][32] Cornell Woolrich (1903–1968), writing under pseudonyms like William Irish, advanced pulp noir with psychological suspense and themes of fate and guilt in the 1930s and 1940s. His stories in Black Mask and other pulps, such as "Dark Melody of Madness" (1935), emphasized internal torment and inescapable doom, influencing the genre's shift toward introspective narratives and film noir adaptations.[1] David Goodis (1917–1967) contributed haunting tales of obsession, alcoholism, and urban despair to pulps like Story and later paperbacks in the 1940s. Works like Dark Passage (1946), serialized in Ladies' Home Journal, featured flawed protagonists in gritty settings, often Philadelphia, and were adapted into films, underscoring pulp noir's focus on marginal lives and psychic trauma.[2] Mickey Spillane (1918–2006), a former comic book writer, revitalized pulp noir in the postwar period with his debut novel I, the Jury (1947), introducing the vigilante private eye Mike Hammer and amplifying sex, sadism, and graphic violence to unprecedented levels in the genre. Hammer's narratives, blending anti-Communist fervor with raw vigilantism, resonated amid 1940s–1950s anxieties, propelling Spillane to massive commercial success; I, the Jury sold nearly 7 million copies by 1952, and his early Mike Hammer books collectively moved over 20 million units in the first half-decade, outpacing contemporaries and briefly making him America's best-selling author. Spillane's rapid output—seven Hammer novels by 1952—capitalized on paperback booms, though his career remained rooted in pulp sensationalism rather than literary elevation.[33][34]

Influential Publications and Stories

Black Mask, published from 1920 to 1951, served as the epicenter of pulp noir, pioneering the hard-boiled style through its serialization of gritty detective tales that emphasized urban corruption and moral ambiguity.[35] Under editor Joseph T. Shaw starting in 1926, the magazine shifted toward terse, realistic narratives, influencing the genre's shift from traditional mysteries to noir-infused crime fiction.[1] Its circulation peaked at over 130,000 copies monthly in the early 1930s, reflecting widespread popularity amid the Great Depression.[36] Other notable publications included Detective Fiction Weekly, launched in 1924 as an imitator of Black Mask, which expanded the market for hard-boiled stories by featuring similar tough-guy protagonists and urban settings, contributing to the genre's proliferation in the 1930s.[1] Spicy Detective Stories, active from 1934 to 1942, stood out for its sensational blend of detective plots with explicit sensuality, often pushing boundaries that led to censorship pressures; by 1942, regulatory scrutiny in New York City forced publisher Culture Publications to tone down content, rebranding it as Speed Detective Stories to avoid outright bans.[37] Such magazines faced international restrictions, with Black Mask and similar titles prohibited in Australia during the 1930s and 1940s for their depictions of violence and vice.[38] Seminal stories further defined pulp noir's contours. Dashiell Hammett's "Red Harvest," serialized in Black Mask from November 1927 to February 1928 and published as a novel in 1929, exemplified the genre through its anonymous operative unraveling a web of labor strife and gang warfare in a corrupt mining town, establishing the archetype of systemic rot in American society.[35] Raymond Chandler's "Killer in the Rain," appearing in Black Mask in January 1935, introduced poetic cynicism and complex blackmail schemes, later repurposed into elements of his novel The Big Sleep, marking a stylistic evolution toward lyrical noir prose.[39] Mickey Spillane's I, the Jury, released as a novel in 1947 after Spillane's pulp apprenticeship, launched the ultra-violent Mike Hammer series, redefining post-war pulp with its vigilante justice and raw sexuality, selling over 6 million copies in its first year and bridging pulp to mainstream crime fiction.[40] These publications' influence extended to anthologies that preserved and elevated pulp noir. Collections like The Hard-Boiled Omnibus (1946), compiling Black Mask stories by Hammett and others, introduced the style to broader audiences, solidifying its role in launching the hard-boiled canon beyond ephemeral magazines.[1]

Adaptations and Influence

Film Adaptations

Pulp noir's transition to cinema began with early adaptations that captured the genre's hard-boiled essence, starting with John Huston's 1941 directorial debut The Maltese Falcon, based on Dashiell Hammett's 1930 novel originally serialized in the pulp magazine Black Mask.[41] The film stars Humphrey Bogart as the cynical detective Sam Spade, emphasizing moral ambiguity and urban corruption through tight scripting that retained nearly all of Hammett's dialogue.[42] This adaptation marked a pivotal shift, blending pulp's gritty realism with emerging noir visuals to establish the private eye archetype on screen.[41] Following closely, Howard Hawks's 1946 The Big Sleep adapted Raymond Chandler's 1939 novel, also from Black Mask roots, featuring Bogart as Philip Marlowe navigating a labyrinthine plot of blackmail and murder.[43] The screenplay, contributed to by William Faulkner and Leigh Brackett, incorporated Chandler's witty, metaphoric dialogue while altering elements like the ending to comply with censorship, yet preserved the protagonist's chivalric yet flawed code.[44] These early films demonstrated how pulp noir's terse prose and fatalistic tone translated effectively to Hollywood, influencing a wave of detective stories.[41] The 1940s and 1950s saw a boom in low-budget B-movies adapting pulp noir, often as double features that amplified the genre's accessibility and stylistic flair. Robert Siodmak's 1946 The Killers, drawn from Ernest Hemingway's 1927 short story in Scribner's Magazine—a publication overlapping with pulp influences—introduced Burt Lancaster as the doomed boxer Swede, expanding the tale into a full investigation of betrayal and heists.[45] Produced by Universal as a mid-tier release, it exemplified crossovers with film noir through its psychological depth and ensemble cast, including Ava Gardner as the seductive femme fatale.[41] Such adaptations proliferated, turning pulp's disposable thrills into profitable cinema amid post-war demand for escapist crime dramas.[46] Stylistic shifts in these films amplified pulp noir's inherent grit via visual and narrative techniques borrowed from German expressionism. Directors like Huston and Siodmak employed chiaroscuro lighting—high-contrast shadows creating tension and moral unease—as seen in The Maltese Falcon's dimly lit offices and The Killers' nocturnal pursuits, enhancing the protagonists' isolation.[41] Voiceover narration, a staple for conveying inner cynicism, featured prominently in The Big Sleep and The Killers, allowing pulp's first-person introspection to guide audiences through convoluted plots.[47] These elements, combined with motifs like venetian blind shadows, transformed literary grit into a visually arresting cinematic language.[41] The cultural impact of pulp noir films often clashed with the Motion Picture Production Code (Hays Code), which restricted depictions of immorality, yet adaptations pushed boundaries through suggestive content. Jacques Tourneur's 1947 Out of the Past, adapted from Geoffrey Homes's (Daniel Mainwaring) 1946 novel Build My Gallows High—rooted in pulp crime traditions—portrayed adultery and fatal attraction via implied seduction and shadowy encounters, challenging Code prohibitions on explicit vice.[46] Starring Robert Mitchum as the haunted Jeff Bailey, the film used voiceover and flashbacks to hint at taboo relationships, contributing to the Code's gradual erosion by the late 1940s as audiences embraced noir's adult themes.[41] This tension underscored pulp noir's role in evolving cinematic expression beyond moral constraints.

Expansions in Other Media

Pulp noir's expansion into comics began in the 1940s with the rise of crime comics that echoed the gritty, moralistic tales of pulp magazines. Lev Gleason Publications' Crime Does Not Pay, launched in 1942, pioneered the genre by presenting dramatized real-life crimes with a cautionary tone, selling millions of copies and inspiring a wave of similar titles that blended sensationalism with noir's fatalistic underworld.[48] This series, running until 1955, captured pulp noir's emphasis on inevitable downfall and urban decay, influencing the visual style of subsequent comics through stark illustrations of violence and corruption.[48] In the modern era, graphic novels revived pulp noir's hard-boiled aesthetics with heightened stylization. Frank Miller's Sin City series, starting in 1991, channels the pulp tradition through its black-and-white artwork, archetypal antiheroes, and terse narration reminiscent of 1930s detective pulps, earning acclaim for revitalizing the genre in serialized form.[49] The stories, such as The Hard Goodbye, amplify pulp noir motifs like betrayal and redemption in a rain-slicked, corrupt Basin City, impacting the industry's shift toward mature, auteur-driven narratives.[50] Radio adaptations in the 1940s brought pulp noir's shadowy intrigue to audio audiences, with The Shadow serials exemplifying the transition. Originating from Walter B. Gibson's pulp magazine character in 1930, the radio program premiered in 1937 on the Mutual Broadcasting System, featuring Lamont Cranston as a crime-fighting vigilante who "clouds men's minds" to battle urban evil, its episodes blending mystery and moral ambiguity in over 600 broadcasts until 1954.[51] This format popularized pulp noir's psychological depth and episodic structure, influencing broadcast drama's focus on unseen threats and detective monologues.[52] Early television extended these elements into visual police procedurals during the 1950s. Jack Webb's Dragnet, debuting on NBC in 1951, adapted pulp noir's investigative rigor—drawn from real LAPD cases but filtered through noir's stark realism—into a semi-documentary style, with Sergeant Joe Friday's deadpan delivery emphasizing facts over flair across 276 episodes until 1959.[53] Inspired by the 1948 noir film He Walked by Night, the series stripped away pulp excess for procedural authenticity, yet retained underlying tensions of moral compromise in Los Angeles' underbelly.[54] Contemporary revivals in the 2010s have reimagined pulp noir through anthologies and interactive media, blending homage with modern sensibilities. Collections like The New Black: A Neo-Noir Anthology (2014), edited by Richard Thomas, gather original stories from authors such as Victor LaValle and Joe Meno, echoing pulp's short-form intensity while exploring diverse voices in crime and psychological suspense.[55] In video games, Rockstar Games' L.A. Noire (2011) immerses players in 1940s Los Angeles as detective Cole Phelps, using motion-captured facial technology to detect lies in interrogations, directly channeling pulp noir's detective archetype and atmospheric corruption from sources like Raymond Chandler's novels.[56] The game's narrative arcs, involving vice and homicide desks, highlight pulp's themes of institutional rot and personal downfall, achieving critical success with over 5 million units sold as of 2017. More recent examples include CD Projekt Red's Cyberpunk 2077 (2020), which incorporates pulp noir elements through its cyberpunk detective quests, moral ambiguity, and dystopian underbelly in a sprawling open world. Pulp noir's global dissemination appears in European bande dessinée, where post-war comics absorbed American pulp influences into mature storytelling. Franco-Belgian traditions, emerging in the 1930s, incorporated noir elements like existential crime tales amid a booming industry producing thousands of titles annually.[57] In Japan, yakuza films drew from postwar American noir and pulp roots, evolving into a distinct genre by the 1960s. Directors like Akira Kurosawa in Drunken Angel (1948) fused pulp's hard-boiled cynicism with yakuza honor codes, portraying tuberculosis-afflicted gangsters in Tokyo's slums as symbols of societal decay, influencing the ninkyo eiga subgenre.[58] This synthesis, evident in Toei Studios' output, adapted pulp motifs of loyalty and betrayal to Japanese contexts, impacting international crime cinema.[59]

References

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  2. On Jay A. Gertzman's “Pulp According to David Goodis”
  3. https://mcfarlandbooks.com/product/cornell-woolrich-from-pulp-noir-to-film-noir/
  4. Dames, detectives and dope: why we still love hardboiled crime
  5. Black Mask - Pulp Magazines Project
  6. So What is Pulp?
  7. [PDF] Cornell Woolrich - Columbia School of the Arts
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  11. History of the Pulps - PulpWorld.com
  12. The Era of Prohibition and its influence on pulp fiction books, the ...
  13. CIS: Black Mask returns | Crime Fiction Lover
  14. Influences of Film Noir - - American Pulps
  15. Burton Combs (real name unknown) - Thrilling Detective
  16. CARROLL JOHN DALY “The False Burton Comes.” - Mystery*File
  17. He Wasn't The Best But He Was Good Enough - SleuthSayers
  18. Ralph Willett, Hard-Boiled Detective Fiction
  19. [PDF] Hard-Boiled Fiction: A Fusion of Noir and Detective Fiction
  20. [PDF] THE HARD-BOILED MODE - analepsis
  21. https://lithub.com/on-the-difference-between-hardboiled-and-noir/
  22. [PDF] The Simple Art of Hard-Boiled Fiction and Film Noir
  23. Hard-Boiled Masculinities - University of Minnesota Press
  24. [PDF] Notes on Film Noir - Paul Schrader (1972) - Intelligent Agent
  25. [PDF] the post-noir novel: pulp genre, alienation, and the turn from
  26. Dashiell Hammett
  27. Raymond Chandler: Making Pulp Serious - Books Tell You Why
  28. The Big Sleep Woke Up Noir Fans 80 Years Ago
  29. Paul Cain: An Introduction - Black Mask
  30. Erle Stanley Gardner – The Thrilling Detective Web Site
  31. Erle Stanley Gardner | Research Starters - EBSCO
  32. Novelist was a big gun - Variety
  33. The Massively Popular, Mostly Forgotten Craze for American Style ...
  34. Black Mask Turns One Hard-Boiled Hundred
  35. Covers from Black Mask, a Vintage Pulp Fiction Mag
  36. Spicy Detective Stories - PulpFest
  37. Prohibited Pulp | naa.gov.au - National Archives of Australia
  38. A (Black) Gat in the Hand: Black Mask — January, 1935 - Black Gate
  39. A shot to the gut of fiction - Los Angeles Times
  40. https://repository.uwtsd.ac.uk/900/1/Jones%2C%20Matthew%20%282017%29%20Becoming%20Film%20Noir.pdf
  41. The Maltese Falcon (1941) - Turner Classic Movies - TCM
  42. The Big Sleep (1946) - Turner Classic Movies - TCM
  43. The Big Sleep - AFI Catalog - American Film Institute
  44. The Killers (1946) - Turner Classic Movies - TCM
  45. Unacceptable Matters: The Hays Code, Family, Film Noir and RKO ...
  46. (PDF) The Function of Voice-Over Narration in Film Noir
  47. The Rise and Spectacular Fall of Midcentury Crime Comics
  48. Frank Miller's Sin City Volume 1: The Hard Goodbye 2 nd edition TPB
  49. Sin City | Research Starters - EBSCO
  50. The Shadow | 1930s Crime Drama, Orson Welles, Detective Series
  51. The Shadow Was Pulp Fiction's Original Pop Culture Phenomenon ...
  52. [PDF] Class, Masculinity and Family Representations in Jack Webb's ...
  53. This Noir Thriller Led to the Creation of 'Dragnet' - Collider
  54. The New Black: A Neo-Noir Anthology - Amazon.com
  55. The Influences of L.A. Noire - GameSpot
  56. L.A. Noire | Transforming Film Noir Into A Video Game
  57. [PDF] Franco-Belgian comic books/bandes dessinées in the 20th century ...
  58. [PDF] FILM NOIR IN POSTWAR JAPAN
  59. 10 great Japanese film noirs | BFI
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