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Turbo-Union RB199
Turbo-Union RB199
Turbo-Union RB199
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RB199
RB199 at the Royal Air Force Museum Hendon
TypeTurbofan
ManufacturerTurbo-Union
First run1971
Major applicationsPanavia Tornado

The Turbo-Union RB199 is a turbofan jet engine designed and built in the early 1970s by Turbo-Union, a joint venture between Rolls-Royce, MTU and Aeritalia.

The only production application was the Panavia Tornado, but it was used in the British Aerospace EAP whose 1st flight was on 8 August 1986 from Warton, without use of a spare engine on its total 259 flights, and is now in RAF Cosford Museum. It was also used in the first two Prototypes of the Eurofighter Typhoon, whose 1st flight, by DA1, was from Manching, Bavaria on 27 March 1994, and for a further two years before the EJ200 engines were installed - good reliability meant the spare RB199 engine supplied was never used.

Design and development

[edit]
Turbo Union RB199 turbofan engine on display at Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre

The RB199 originated with a requirement, in 1969, to power a new European multirole combat aircraft (MRCA) called the Panavia MRCA.[1] The engine requirements to meet the Panavia MRCA specification were significant advances over current engines in thrust-to-weight ratio, fuel consumption and size. The final selection of the engine for the MRCA was made between a new European collaboration, Turbo Union, with the RB199, and Pratt & Whitney who proposed the JTF16.[2] The Panavia MRCA would later be called the Panavia Tornado.

Advanced engine studies at Bristol Siddeley had already been done to support the BAC/Dassault AFVG and were based on the Pegasus two-spool arrangement. At Rolls-Royce, where the three-shaft RB211 engine was in development, three shafts were considered better.[3] Rolls-Royce took over Bristol Siddeley in 1966 so the configuration for the RB199 was decided, a three-shaft engine, but fundamentally to Bristol's design and Bristol's higher technology.

The overall design concept for the international collaborative program, three shafts was decided by Rolls-Royce. The bypass ratio was chosen for long-range, with low fuel consumption, particularly when throttled back. The selected BPR also gave a higher reheat boost than with smaller values used on similar engines.[4] The design of the individual modules was shared between Rolls-Royce, MTU and Fiat according to their existing expertise. Rolls-Royce designed the fan using scaled-down Pegasus knowledge, the combustor, the high pressure (HP) turbine and the reheat. The reheat used cold air combustion techniques, described by Arthur Sotheran[5] and which were derived from their experience with ramjets and plenum chamber burning (PCB) in Pegasus front nozzles.[6] Fiat had built turbines for the Viper so designed the low pressure (LP) turbine as well as the final nozzle. MTU designed the intermediate pressure(IP) and high pressure (HP) compressors, the IP turbine, and the thrust reverser.[7] An interesting read from MTU's very early RB199 days can be found in https://aeroreport.de/en/aviation/rb199-development-the-engine-that-started-it-all.

A three-spool arrangement reduces the pressure ratio on each compressor[8] so no variable stators were needed. To meet the short afterburner requirement an arrangement known as mix-then-burn, as used in current engines, was not possible because it was too long and heavy. The RB199 used a much shorter arrangement known as burn/mix.[9]

The RB199 first ran on 27 September 1971 at Patchway, UK.[10] It was flight-tested using an Avro Vulcan with the engine installed in a nacelle that was representative of the Tornado aircraft. The Vulcan first flew with the RB199 on 19apr1973 from Filton.

Service flying with the Royal Air Force, German Navy and German and Italian Air Forces in the European environment showed normal failure mechanisms for turbine blades, thermal fatigue, creep and high cycle fatigue (HCF) so development started on replacing the initial production equiaxed blades with single-crystal ones which last longer at high temperatures.

Sand ingestion tests had been done and passed as part of the qualification for service introduction but operating in desert conditions with the Royal Saudi Air Force produced new problems. Frequent flying in air carrying suspended sizes of sand particles caused deposits on the HP turbine blades from sand passing through the combustor. In addition, the dust carried with the cooling air through the blades blocked the cooling holes. Single crystal blades were being introduced to improve the life of the blades for the European operating conditions and revised cooling hole arrangements were introduced at the same time to reduce the detrimental effect of the suspended dust on blade cooling. With incorporation of these blade processing and cooling changes "Desert Storm" Tornado aircraft flew some of the most arduous missions of any Allied aircraft with reliability no worse than peacetime and no engines were rejected for HP Turbine blade defects."[11]

Looking back on the RB199 program in 2002 Chief Engineer for the RB199, Dr.Gordon Lewis, concluded "The final production standard provided satisfactory reliability and performance."[12]

Variants and applications

[edit]

Thrust given in kilonewtons (kN) and foot-pounds (lbf).

RB199 Mk 101
Initial variant powered first Tornado IDS deliveries, with 38.7 kN (8,700 lbf) (dry) 66.01 kN (14,840 lbf) with reheat afterburners.[13]
RB199 Mk 103
Powering Tornado IDS strike versions, with a rating of 40.5 kN (dry) 71.2 kN (reheat)
RB199 Mk 104
Powering the Tornado F3 Air Defence Variant, with a rating of 40.5? kN (dry) 73? kN (reheat) airframe life limited to Mach 2.2, but thrust-drag capable of Mach 2.4+;RB 199 Mk104D
Derivative used on the BAe EAP.[13]
RB199 Mk 105
Powering Tornado ECR versions and applicable to IDS, with a rating of 42.5 kN (dry) 74.3 kN (reheat)
RB199-122
A derivative of the Mk104 (originally designated Mk 104E[13]), powering the first two prototypes of the Eurofighter Typhoon (DA1 and DA2) until the initial versions of the Eurojet EJ200 were available.

Engines on display

[edit]

Specifications (RB199-104)

[edit]

Data from Rolls-Royce and MTU.[16][17]

General characteristics

  • Type: Turbofan
  • Length: 3,600 mm (142 in)
  • Diameter: 720 mm (28.3 in)
  • Dry weight: 976 kg (2,151 lb)

Components

  • Compressor: 3-stage LP, 3-stage IP, 6-stage HP
  • Turbine: Single-crystal HP, single-crystal IP, 2-stage LP

Performance

  • Maximum thrust: 40 kN (9,100 lbf) dry, 73 kN (16,400 lbf) wet
  • Turbine inlet temperature: ~1,600 K
  • Thrust-to-weight ratio: 7.6 (with reheat, but thrust reverser mass included)

See also

[edit]

Comparable engines

Related lists

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Turbo-Union RB199

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Turbo-Union RB199 is a three-spool, low-bypass engine with , designed specifically to power the . It features a modular construction with an integrated thrust reverser, single-crystal turbine blades for enhanced durability, and a digital , delivering thrust in the range of 16,000 to 17,000 lbf (71 to 76 kN) and dry thrust of approximately 9,217 lbf (41 kN). With a of 1:1.3, a of 23:1, a length of 10.5 feet (3.2 meters), and a weight of about 2,390 pounds (1,084 kg) including the thrust reverser, the RB199 was engineered for high and reliability in low-level, high-speed operations. Developed through the Turbo-Union consortium—comprising Rolls-Royce (), MTU Aero Engines (), and Avio Aero ()—the RB199 project began in 1969 as part of Europe's largest collaboration during the and . The engine's first ground test run occurred in September 1971, followed by its aboard a modified in April 1973, addressing early challenges such as bearing and stability. It entered service with the Royal in 1979 and the German in 1981, accumulating over 7.18 million flight hours across 2,504 engines produced as of December 2023. The RB199's innovative three-shaft architecture, drawing from engine research, optimized efficiency and for the 's variable-sweep wings and multirole missions, including , reconnaissance, and electronic warfare. Key components, such as the intermediate- and high-pressure compressors and the intermediate-pressure turbine, were led by MTU, which holds a 40% share in the program and manages final assembly and sustainment for the German fleet. Its afterburning capability increases from 9,217 lbf (41 kN) to 16,000–17,000 lbf (71–76 kN), enabling the twin-engine to perform long-range strikes, as demonstrated in operations like the and missions in . Production variants, such as the RB199-34R and RB199-100, were tailored for different Tornado models (IDS, ECR, and ADV), with the engine's 16 modular sections facilitating maintenance and upgrades. The RB199 also influenced subsequent designs, including seals and compressor technologies in the for the . As the Tornado approaches retirement—by 2025 in , and up to 2030 in —the RB199 remains a benchmark for collaborative European , with continuing operations.

Development history

Conception and collaboration

The Turbo-Union consortium was formed in 1969 as a joint venture between Rolls-Royce plc (40% share), (40% share), and FiatAvio (now Avio Aero, 20% share) to develop and produce advanced engines for European programs. This multinational collaboration was driven by the need for shared technological expertise and cost efficiency in meeting NATO's evolving defense requirements during the era. The RB199 engine project originated as the propulsion solution for the Panavia Multi-Rôle Combat Aircraft (MRCA) program, a trinational initiative launched in 1968 by the , , and to create a versatile swing-wing for low-altitude strike and roles. The MRCA, later designated the , demanded an engine capable of supporting high-speed, low-level penetration missions through enemy air defenses, supersonic dash performance, and efficient operation across diverse profiles including and air superiority tasks. In October 1969, shortly after Turbo-Union's establishment, the consortium was awarded the development contract for the RB199 by the MRCA partners, marking the start of work on a powerplant tailored to the aircraft's demanding specifications. Initial design goals emphasized a three-spool configuration with a low of 1:1.3 to achieve a high , afterburning for supersonic bursts, and optimized for variable mission demands. The three-spool architecture represented a novel approach for military engines, enabling independent optimization of low-, intermediate-, and high-pressure sections for enhanced performance in both subsonic and regimes.

Testing and certification

The development of the Turbo-Union RB199 under the Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA) program required rigorous testing to ensure its suitability for high-performance applications. The first engine run took place on 27 September 1971 at the Rolls-Royce facility in Patchway, near , , marking the beginning of an intensive validation process. Early ground testing was conducted at Turbo-Union partner facilities in , (), and , (Rolls-Royce), where engineers addressed key challenges such as vibration in the complex three-shaft bearing structure and thermal management issues related to differential expansion between rotor blades and engine casings. These tests focused on optimizing compressor efficiency and structural integrity, with iterative redesigns to mitigate aerodynamic instabilities and in the high-pressure compressor blades. Flight testing commenced with a modified B.2 bomber (XA903) serving as the initial testbed, achieving the first airborne run of the RB199 on 19 April 1973. This platform allowed for progressive evaluation of engine performance across subsonic envelopes, accumulating approximately 286 flight hours and 203 in-flight engine test hours over the program's duration through 1979. By April 1974, (reheat) functionality was successfully demonstrated on the Vulcan, validating augmented thrust capabilities essential for supersonic operations. Integration testing shifted to prototypes starting with the first RB199-powered flight on 14 August 1974 from Manching, , where trials included optimization and the innovative integrated thrust reverser system, which was unique among engines for its compact within the assembly. Certification efforts culminated in the resolution of early reliability concerns, particularly turbine blade fatigue due to thermal stresses in the high-pressure turbine, which were alleviated through the adoption of advanced single-crystal blade materials and enhanced cooling techniques. Qualification testing concluded in late 1978, paving the way for operational in 1979 ahead of the Tornado IDS (Interdictor/Strike) variant's service entry with the Royal Air Force. A significant milestone was reached by 1977, with the RB199 program surpassing 10,000 hours of combined ground and flight development testing, confirming its robustness for frontline deployment.

Engine design

Core architecture

The Turbo-Union RB199 features a three-spool architecture as an afterburning engine, with independent low-pressure (LP), intermediate-pressure (IP), and high-pressure (HP) spools designed to meet the Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA) requirements for versatile performance. The LP spool consists of a three-stage low-pressure (incorporating the fan), the IP spool consists of a three-stage paired with a single-stage , and the HP spool incorporates a six-stage driven by a single-stage . This arrangement enables each spool to operate at its optimal speed, improving surge margins, efficiency, and responsiveness across subsonic cruise, supersonic dash, and low-level penetration missions. The maintains a low of 1:1.3, tailored for supersonic performance and low-altitude efficiency in variable mission profiles, while an integrated delivers reheat up to 74 kN for enhanced acceleration and maneuverability. Overall dimensions include a length of 3.17 m without the reverser and a of 0.91 m, supporting compact integration. Modular facilitates straightforward disassembly and , reducing downtime in operational environments. Incoming air follows a divided path, with the fan directing a portion of the as bypass flow around the core for added , while the core flow undergoes progressive compression across the LP, IP, and HP stages to achieve an overall pressure ratio of 23:1. A reverser integrated into the provides forward-directed exhaust for improved short-field performance and deceleration on rough surfaces.

Components and innovations

The compressor section of the RB199 features an axial-flow design comprising 12 stages in total, divided into three low-pressure, three intermediate-pressure, and six high-pressure stages, enabling a of 23:1. The intermediate-pressure and high-pressure compressors incorporate variable vanes that adjust incidence angles to maintain optimal airflow matching and provide effective surge control, thereby improving operational stability and efficiency across varying flight regimes. Innovations in the turbine sections include the use of single-crystal nickel superalloys for blades in the high-pressure and intermediate-pressure turbines, which allow sustained operation at turbine inlet temperatures around 1,300°C while resisting creep and . These air-cooled turbines, with channeled cooling passages directing to critical areas, enhance and support the engine's three-spool architecture by permitting independent speed optimization for each spool. The low-pressure turbine remains uncooled to simplify design and reduce weight. The employs an annular configuration with integrated fuel spray rings, facilitating quick ignition and uniform fuel distribution for rapid reheat response and augmentation up to 16,000–17,000 lbf. Early engine control relied on an analog regulator, serving as a precursor to full authority digital engine control () systems, which was upgraded in 1987 to a digital variant for greater flexibility and reliability. MTU further advanced this with the DECU 2020 digital , introduced in 1995 for German and Italian variants, incorporating improved processors for precise management of fuel flow, variable geometry, and monitoring functions. Lubrication and cooling are handled by an air-oil mist system integrated with heat exchangers to regulate oil temperatures and scavenge contaminants, while dedicated blade cooling channels in the turbines route for film and internal cooling, contributing to extended component life and on-condition maintenance intervals exceeding typical overhaul requirements for military turbofans.

Variants

Production variants

The production variants of the Turbo-Union RB199 encompassed the standard models manufactured for operational service in aircraft, evolving from the baseline three-spool design to address specific mission profiles. A total of 2,504 engines were built across these variants by the consortium of Rolls-Royce, , and , with MTU responsible for 40% of manufacturing responsibilities. The RB199-34R Mk 101 was the initial production variant, equipping early IDS aircraft with 38.7 kN dry and 66 kN reheat ; it entered production in 1979 and remained in use through the 1980s. Subsequent upgrades led to the RB199-34R Mk 103, an enhanced version for IDS platforms featuring improved cooling systems, delivering 40.5 kN dry and 71.2 kN reheat , and entering service in the mid-1980s. The RB199-34R Mk 104 variant was specifically adapted for the Tornado ADV (F3) interceptor, providing 40.5 kN dry thrust and 73 kN reheat thrust while optimized for high-altitude operations; production spanned the 1980s to . Finally, the RB199-34R Mk 105 represented the most advanced production model, powering Tornado ECR and later IDS configurations with 42.5 kN dry thrust and approximately 74-77 kN reheat thrust (sea level static), incorporating greater turbine durability; it was produced during the . A further upgrade, the Mk 106, was developed for enhanced performance in Tornado F3 aircraft but saw limited production.

Experimental variants

The RB199-34R Mk 104D variant was specifically adapted for the Experimental Aircraft Programme (EAP) demonstrator, a technology testbed flown in the 1980s to explore advanced fighter concepts that influenced the . This configuration incorporated features to enhance overall aircraft agility, including integration with digital flight control systems, while maintaining compatibility with the engine's three-spool architecture derived from production models. The EAP, powered by two such engines, achieved its first flight on 6 August 1986, enabling evaluations of relaxed stability and high maneuverability at speeds exceeding Mach 2. Building on the Mk 104 lineage, the RB199-122 (also designated Mk 104E) represented an uprated experimental adaptation used in the initial development aircraft during the 1990s. This variant powered the first two prototypes, DA1 and DA2, providing interim propulsion before the transition to the purpose-built EJ200 engine and allowing early assessment of thrust integration with the airframe's controls. Data from these installations contributed to refinements in the EJ200's design, particularly in terms of power delivery and reliability under prototype flight regimes. Additional experimental configurations of the RB199 were tested in specialized setups, such as high-altitude trials aboard the B.1 XA903, which served as a flying to simulate operational envelopes beyond the 's primary low-level mission profile. The Vulcan's inherent high-altitude performance, capable of sustaining operations above 50,000 feet, facilitated evaluations of the RB199's behavior in rarefied atmospheres, including reheat and thrust reverser functionality integrated into a mock fuselage section. Separate efforts explored noise-attenuating modifications to support processes, focusing on exhaust and optimizations to meet evolving regulatory standards without altering core performance. These experimental RB199 units were produced in limited quantities, with fewer than 50 engines dedicated to prototype and demonstrator roles, emphasizing over serial deployment.

Applications and service

Primary military applications

The Turbo-Union RB199 engine found its primary military application as the powerplant for the multirole combat aircraft, with each Tornado equipped with two RB199 afterburning turbofans to provide the necessary for operations across diverse mission profiles. The engine enabled the Tornado's integration into three main variants: the IDS (interdiction/strike) for ground attack and , the ADV (air defense variant) for long-range interception, and the ECR (electronic combat/reconnaissance) for suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) and electronic warfare. This configuration allowed the RB199 to support the Tornado's all-weather, low-level penetration capabilities while maintaining high-altitude performance in defensive roles. The RB199-powered Tornado entered service in 1979 with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the German Luftwaffe, marking the operational debut of the trinational aircraft in Western European air forces, while the received its first deliveries in 1981. Over the production run, more than 900 were powered by the RB199, forming the backbone of strike and defense squadrons across allies. In the IDS role, the engine's low-level thrust and fuel efficiency facilitated high-speed, terrain-following penetrations, as demonstrated by RAF Tornados during the 1991 , where they conducted precision strikes against Iraqi targets under intense air defenses. For the ADV variant, the RB199 supported rapid intercepts and (QRA) duties, including RAF patrols over the from the early 1990s onward to secure the South Atlantic airspace against potential threats. In the ECR configuration, the engine powered SEAD missions equipped with anti-radiation missiles, enabling German and operations in the during the 1990s, such as NATO's in 1995, where Tornados suppressed Serb radar sites to support allied airstrikes. Export applications centered on the Royal Saudi Air Force's fleet, which adopted IDS and ECR variants powered by the RB199 for regional strike and reconnaissance tasks, sustaining operations through multiple conflicts with a planned retirement around 2030. This deployment underscored the engine's reliability in hot, dusty environments, contributing to Saudi Arabia's air defense and interdiction capabilities.

Operational record and sustainment

The Turbo-Union RB199 engine has accumulated over 7.18 million flight hours across 2,504 delivered units as of December 2023, demonstrating its enduring reliability in powering Panavia Tornado aircraft for multiple air forces. The engine proved effective in major operations, including the Royal Air Force and Royal Saudi Air Force contributions to Operation Desert Storm in 1991, where Tornados conducted low-level strikes; NATO missions during the Kosovo War in 1999, involving German, Italian, and British squadrons for reconnaissance and bombing; and sustained deployments in Afghanistan by UK forces from 2001 onward, supporting ground operations in harsh environments. Reliability enhancements post-1980s, such as the introduction of single-crystal turbine blades, significantly extended component life and reduced failure rates under combat stresses. Production of the RB199 ceased in the early , shifting focus to long-term sustainment programs managed by Turbo-Union partners Rolls-Royce and . These efforts include comprehensive overhaul services, with MTU completing 1,660 operations on engines for the German to restore full performance and extend service life. A key upgrade was the DECU 2020 digital engine control unit, developed by MTU for the German and Italian fleets, which replaced earlier analog systems in to improve fuel efficiency, thrust management, and diagnostic capabilities during operations. In desert environments, such as those encountered by Saudi and forces, the RB199 faced challenges from sand ingestion leading to compressor erosion, which was mitigated through specialized protective coatings on blades and vanes to maintain airflow and performance. These measures, combined with for rapid module swaps, have supported availability rates exceeding 90% in recent years across active fleets. As retirements approach, plans to phase out its fleet by 2025, followed by and by 2030, with sustainment transitioning to spares recovery, legacy overhauls, and for residual support.

Specifications

General characteristics

The Turbo-Union RB199 is a three-spool, low-bypass afterburning developed for applications. The three-spool architecture separates the low-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and high-pressure systems for enhanced efficiency and control. For the primary RB199-104 , the has a length of 3.60 m, a of 0.72 m, and a dry weight of 976 kg (excluding the thrust reverser). The configuration includes a 3-stage low-pressure fan, a 3-stage intermediate-pressure , and a 6-stage high-pressure . The comprises a 1-stage high-pressure unit, a 1-stage intermediate-pressure unit, and a 2-stage low-pressure unit, with all stages featuring cooling. The engine is designed to operate on or equivalent fuel, with fuel storage and volume capacity integrated into the of the host rather than the engine itself.

Performance

The RB199-104 variant of the Turbo-Union RB199 engine, primarily powering the F3 air defense variant, produces a dry thrust of 40.5 kN (9,100 lbf) and 73 kN (16,400 lbf) with at static conditions. This performance enables effective low-level strike and high-altitude missions, balancing power output with the engine's compact three-spool architecture. Specific fuel consumption for the RB199-104 is rated at 0.82 lb/(lbf·h) in dry mode and 2.1 lb/(lbf·h) in reheat mode, contributing to efficient use during extended patrols and combat operations. The stands at 7.6:1, while the overall pressure ratio achieves 23:1, optimizing compression efficiency for the engine's of approximately 1:1. Key thermal and environmental limits include a maximum inlet temperature of 1,200°C, which supports sustained high-temperature operation through advanced cooling techniques on the high-pressure turbine blades. The engine's operational envelope spans from to 15,000 m altitude, aligning with the Tornado's service ceiling and enabling versatile performance across diverse mission profiles. As of December 2023, RB199 engines have accumulated 7.18 million flight hours across all variants, underscoring its reliability in demanding environments. Compared to earlier marks like the Mk 101 used in initial Tornado IDS aircraft, the -104 offers marginally higher ratings for improved air defense capabilities without altering core efficiency metrics.

References

  1. https://www.mtu.de/engines/military-aircraft-engines/fighter-aircraft/rb199/
  2. https://aeroreport.de/en/aviation/fifty-years-of-the-tornado-success-with-the-rb199-engine
  3. https://www.rolls-royce.com/media/our-stories/discover/2019/tornado.aspx
  4. https://www.mtu.de/about-us/history/
  5. https://aeroreport.de/en/aviation/fifty-years-of-the-tornado-success-with-the-rb199-engine/
  6. https://www.panavia.de/aircraft/rb-199-power-plant
  7. https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/documents/Research/RAF-Historical-Society-Journals/Journal-27A-Seminar-Birth-of-Tornado.pdf
  8. https://www.rolls-royce.com/products-and-services/defence/aerospace/combat-jets/rb199.aspx
  9. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/eb035150/full/pdf
  10. https://aeroreport.de/en/aviation/rb199-development-the-engine-that-started-it-all
  11. http://www.2av8.co.uk/pages/xa903/xa903h.htm
  12. https://www.pprune.org/archive/index.php/t-637527.html
  13. https://www.flying-tigers.co.uk/2020/panavia-tornado-ids-and-the-latest-hobbymaster-new-model-announcements/
  14. http://www.tornado-data.com/History/engine/engines.htm
  15. https://www.warbirdsresourcegroup.org/LRG/rb199.html
  16. https://www.forecastinternational.com/archive/disp_pdf.cfm?DACH_RECNO=260
  17. https://www.ist.rwth-aachen.de/cms/ist/der-lehrstuhl/triebwerk/~gwnqj/turbounion-rb199/?lidx=1
  18. https://www.deutsches-museum.de/en/flugwerft-schleissheim/exhibition/military-aviation/tornado
  19. https://www.secretprojects.co.uk/threads/turbo-union-rb199-mk-106.43682/
  20. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/eurofighter-eap.htm
  21. https://planehistoria.com/eap-prototype/
  22. https://janes.migavia.com/?view=article&id=97:typhoon
  23. http://targetlock.org.uk/typhoon/development.html
  24. https://www.airvectors.net/avvulcan_2.html
  25. https://www.key.aero/article/how-vulcan-helped-concorde-reach-mach-2
  26. https://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.php?aircraft_id=342
  27. https://www.globalaircraft.org/planes/tornado_ids_adv.pl
  28. http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/aircraft/types/type-details/panavia-tornado-ids
  29. https://www.twz.com/38745/how-british-tornados-used-a-special-weapon-to-ravage-saddams-airfields-in-daring-desert-storm-raids
  30. https://www.globalaviationresource.com/v2/2015/03/06/aviation-feature-the-tornado-f3-air-defence-variant-adv/
  31. https://www.key.aero/article/italian-tornados-combat-operations
  32. https://www.flightglobal.com/tornado-could-fly-on-into-2030s-partners-say/114587.article
  33. https://simpleflying.com/panavia-tornado-history/
  34. https://pickledwings.com/panavia-tornado-ids-a-swing-and-a-hit/
  35. https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/panavia-tornado-great-plane-why-going-into-retirement-hk-080725
  36. https://simpleflying.com/why-do-engines-deteriorate-faster-in-desert-regions/
  37. https://www.aerotime.aero/articles/iconic-panavia-tornado-combat-aircraft-turns-50
  38. https://www.trenchardmuseum.org.uk/RB199.pdf
  39. https://datasheets.globalspec.com/ds/5713/RollsRoyceHoldingsplc/36F34262-7EEE-4253-BBC4-4FF9BCF2F774
  40. https://www.jet-engine.net/miltfspec.htm
  41. https://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.php?aircraft_id=54
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