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RL10

RL10
An RL10A-4 engine in London's Science Museum
Country of originUnited States
First flight1962 (1962) (RL10A-1)
ManufacturerAerojet Rocketdyne
ApplicationUpper stage engine
Associated LVAtlas · Delta III · Delta IV · Saturn I · SLS · Titan IIIE · Titan IV · Vulcan Centaur
Canceled: DC-X · OmegA · Shuttle-Centaur
StatusIn production
Liquid-fuel engine
PropellantLOX / LH2
Mixture ratio5.88:1
CycleExpander cycle[1]
Configuration
Nozzle ratio84:1 or 280:1
Performance
Thrust, vacuum110.1 kN (24,800 lbf)
Specific impulse, vacuum465.5 s (4.565 km/s)
Dimensions
Length4.15 m (13.6 ft) w/ nozzle extended
Diameter2.15 m (7 ft 1 in)
Dry mass301 kg (664 lb)
Used in
Centaur, DCSS, S-IV
References
References[2]
NotesPerformance values and dimensions are for RL10B-2.

The RL10 is a liquid-fuel cryogenic rocket engine built in the United States by Aerojet Rocketdyne that burns cryogenic liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants. Modern versions produce up to 110 kN (24,729 lbf) of thrust per engine in vacuum. RL10 versions were produced for the Centaur upper stage of the Atlas V and the DCSS of the Delta IV. More versions are in development or in use for the Exploration Upper Stage of the Space Launch System and the Centaur V of the Vulcan rocket.[3]

The expander cycle that the engine uses drives the turbopump with waste heat absorbed by the engine combustion chamber, throat, and nozzle. This, combined with the hydrogen fuel, leads to very high specific impulses (Isp) in the range of 373 to 470 s (3.66–4.61 km/s) in a vacuum. Mass ranges from 131 to 317 kg (289–699 lb) depending on the version of the engine.[4][5]

History

[edit]

The RL10 was the first liquid hydrogen rocket engine to be built in the United States, with development of the engine by Marshall Space Flight Center and Pratt & Whitney beginning in the 1950s. The RL10 was originally developed as a throttleable engine for the USAF Lunex lunar lander.[6] The engine was electric spark ignited.[7]

The RL10 was first tested on the ground in 1959, at Pratt & Whitney's Florida Research and Development Center in West Palm Beach, Florida.[8][9] The first successful flight took place on November 27, 1963.[10][11] For that launch, two RL10A-3 engines powered the Centaur upper stage of an Atlas launch vehicle. The launch was used to conduct a heavily instrumented performance and structural integrity test of the vehicle.[12]

RL10A information and overview from Saturn V

Multiple versions of this engine have been flown. The S-IV of the Saturn I used a cluster of six RL10A-3S, a version which was modified for installation on the Saturn[13] and the Titan program included Centaur D-1T upper stages powered by two RL10A-3-3 Engines.[13][14]

Four modified RL10A-5 engines were used in the McDonnell Douglas DC-X.[15]

A flaw in the brazing of an RL10B-2 combustion chamber was identified as the cause of failure for the 4 May 1999 Delta III launch carrying the Orion-3 communications satellite.[16]

The DIRECT version 3.0 proposal to replace Ares I and Ares V with a family of rockets sharing a common core stage recommended the RL10 for the second stage of the J-246 and J-247 launch vehicles.[17] Up to seven RL10 engines would have been used in the proposed Jupiter Upper Stage, serving an equivalent role to the Space Launch System Exploration Upper Stage.

Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine

[edit]
The CECE at partial throttle

In the early 2000s, NASA contracted with Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne to develop the Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine (CECE) demonstrator. CECE was intended to lead to RL10 engines capable of deep throttling.[18] In 2007, its operability (with some "chugging") was demonstrated at 11:1 throttle ratios.[19] In 2009, NASA reported successfully throttling from 104 percent thrust to eight percent thrust, a record for an expander cycle engine of this type. Chugging was eliminated by injector and propellant feed system modifications that control the pressure, temperature and flow of propellants.[20] In 2010, the throttling range was expanded further to a 17.6:1 ratio, throttling from 104% to 5.9% power.[21]

Early 2010s possible successor

[edit]
Second stage of a Delta IV Medium rocket featuring an RL10B-2 engine

In 2012 NASA joined with the US Air Force (USAF) to study next-generation upper stage propulsion, formalizing the agencies' joint interests in a new upper stage engine to replace the Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10.

"We know the list price on an RL10. If you look at cost over time, a very large portion of the unit cost of the EELVs is attributable to the propulsion systems, and the RL10 is a very old engine, and there's a lot of craftwork associated with its manufacture. ... That's what this study will figure out, is it worthwhile to build an RL10 replacement?"

— Dale Thomas, Associated Director Technical, Marshall Space Flight Center[22]

From the study, NASA hoped to find a less expensive RL10-class engine for the upper stage of the Space Launch System (SLS).[22][23]

USAF hoped to replace the Rocketdyne RL10 engines used on the upper stages of the Lockheed Martin Atlas V and the Boeing Delta IV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles (EELV) that were the primary methods of putting US government satellites into space.[22] A related requirements study was conducted at the same time under the Affordable Upper Stage Engine Program (AUSEP).[23]

Improvements

[edit]

The RL10 has undergone multiple upgrades over the decades. The RL10B-2, used on the DCSS, incorporated an extendable nozzle made from carbon–carbon, electro-mechanical gimbaling to reduce weight and increase reliability, and achieved a specific impulse of 465.5 seconds (4.565 km/s).[24][25]

Beginning in the 2000s, Aerojet Rocketdyne introduced 3D printing (additive manufacturing) into RL10 production. The RL10C-1-1 was the first engine to include a 3D-printed component, featuring a nickel superalloy main injector.[26] Building on that experience, in 2015 the company began developing a more extensive upgrade that employed an additively manufactured copper thrust chamber. According to the company, the new process reduced chamber fabrication time from approximately 20 months to 4–6 months compared with earlier hand-fabricated stainless steel chambers, enabling production of up to one engine per week rather than one per month. This variant, designated RL10C-X during development, entered production as the RL10E-1 and is planned for use on United Launch Alliance’s Vulcan Centaur rocket, scheduled for its first flight in 2025.[27][28]

Applications

[edit]

Current

[edit]
  • Centaur III: The single engine centaur (SEC) version uses the RL10C-1,[3] while the dual engine centaur (DEC) version retains the smaller RL10A-4-2.[29] An Atlas V mission (SBIRS-5) marked the first use of the RL10C-1-1 version. The mission was successful but observed unexpected vibration, and further use of the RL10C-1-1 model is on hold until the problem is better understood.[30] The engine was used again successfully on SBIRS-6.
  • Centaur V stage: On May 11, 2018, United Launch Alliance (ULA) announced that the RL10 upper stage engine had been selected for its Vulcan Centaur rocket following a competitive procurement process.[31] Early versions of the Centaur V will use the RL10C-1-1,[3] but later versions will transition to the RL10E in 2025.[32] Vulcan flew its successful maiden flight on January 8, 2024.[33]
  • Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage: The Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage or ICPS is used for the SLS and is similar to the DCSS, except that the engine is an RL10B-2 and it is adapted to fit on top of the 8.4 meter diameter core stage with four RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engines.

In development

[edit]

Cancelled

[edit]

Table of versions

[edit]
Version Status First flight Dry mass Thrust Specific impulse (ve), vac. Length Nozzle diameter T:W O:F Expansion ratio Burn time Associated stage Notes
RL10A-1 Retired 1962 131 kg (289 lb) 67 kN (15,000 lbf) 425 s (4.17 km/s) 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 52:1 5:1 40:1 430 s Centaur A Prototype
[13][29][39][40]
RL10A-3C Retired 1963 131 kg (289 lb) 65.6 kN (14,700 lbf) 444 s (4.35 km/s) 2.49 m (8 ft 2 in) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 51:1 5:1 57:1 470 s Centaur B/C/D/E [41]
RL10A-3S Retired 1964 134 kg (296 lb) 67 kN (15,000 lbf) 427 s (4.19 km/s) 1.73 m (5 ft 8 in) 0.99 m (3 ft 3 in) 51:1 5:1 40:1 482 s S-IV [13][10]
RL10A-4 Retired 1992 168 kg (370 lb) 92.5 kN (20,800 lbf) 449 s (4.40 km/s) 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in) 1.17 m (3 ft 10 in) 56:1 5.5:1 84:1 392 s Centaur IIA [13][42]
RL10A-5 Retired 1993 143 kg (315 lb) 64.7 kN (14,500 lbf) 373 s (3.66 km/s) 1.07 m (3 ft 6 in) 1.02 m (3 ft 4 in) 46:1 6:1 4:1 127 s DC-X [13][43]
RL10B-2 Retired 1998 301 kg (664 lb) 110.1 kN (24,750 lbf) 465.5 s (4.565 km/s) Stowed: 2.2 m (7 ft 2.5 in)
Deployed: 4.15 m (13 ft 7.5 in) 		2.15 m (7 ft 0.5 in) 40:1 5.88:1 280:1 5m: 1,125 s
4m: 700 s 		DCSS
ICPS 		Succeeded by RL10C-2.[2][44][25]
RL10A-4-1 Retired 2000 167 kg (368 lb) 99.1 kN (22,300 lbf) 451 s (4.42 km/s) 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 61:1 84:1 740 s Centaur IIIA [13][45]
RL10A-4-2 Active 2002 170 kg (370 lb) 99 kN (22,300 lbf) 451 s (4.42 km/s) 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in) 1.17 m (3 ft 10 in) 61:1 84:1 740 s Centaur IIIB
Centaur SEC
Centaur DEC 		Used for Starliner launches.[13][46][47]
RL10B-X Cancelled — 317 kg (699 lb) 93.4 kN (21,000 lbf) 470 s (4.6 km/s) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 30:1 250:1 408 s Centaur B-X [48]
CECE Demonstrator project — 160 kg (350 lb) 67 kN (15,000 lbf), throttle to 5–10% >445 s (4.36 km/s) 1.53 m (5 ft 0 in) 43:1 — [49][50]
RL10C-1 Retired 2014 190 kg (420 lb) 101.5 kN (22,820 lbf) 449.7 s (4.410 km/s) 2.18 m (7 ft 2 in) 1.45 m (4 ft 9 in) 57:1 5.5:1 130:1 Centaur SEC
Centaur DEC 		Succeeded by RL-10C-1-1.[51][52][53][47]
RL10C-1-1 Active 2021 188 kg (415 lb) 105.98 kN (23,825 lbf) 453.8 s (4.450 km/s) 2.46 m (8 ft 0.7 in) 1.57 m (5 ft 2 in) 57:1 5.5:1 155:1 Atlas: 842 s
Vulcan: 1,077 s 		Centaur SEC
Centaur V 		Current standard engine for Atlas V and Vulcan Centaur.[13][3]
RL10C-2-1 Retired 2022 301 kg (664 lb) 110.1 kN (24,750 lbf) 465.5 s (4.565 km/s) Stowed: 2.2 m (7 ft 2.5 in)
Deployed: 4.15 m (13 ft 7.5 in) 		2.15 m (7 ft 0.5 in) 37:1 5.88:1 280:1 DCSS [54][55]
RL10C-2 Delivered, not yet flown 2026 (expected) 110.1 kN (24,750 lbf) 465.5 s (4.565 km/s) Stowed: 2.2 m (7 ft 2.5 in)
Deployed: 4.15 m (13 ft 7.5 in) 		2.15 m (7 ft 1 in) 37:1 5.88:1 280:1 ICPS Conversion of C-3[56]
RL10C-3 Delivered, not yet flown 2028 (expected) 230 kg (508 lb) 108.3 kN (24,340 lbf) 460.1 s (4.512 km/s) 3.16 m (10 ft 4.3 in) 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) 48:1 5.7:1 215:1 EUS [13][3][56]
RL10C-5-1 Cancelled — 188 kg (414 lb) 105.98 kN (23,825 lbf) 453.8 s (4.450 km/s) 2.46 m (8 ft 0.7 in) 1.57 m (4 ft 9 in) 57:1 5.5:1 OmegA [3][36]
RL10E-1 Delivered, not yet flown 2025 (expected) 231 kg (509 lb) 107.29 kN (24,120 lbf) 460.9 s (4.520 km/s) 3.31 m (10 ft 10 in) 1.87 m (6 ft 2 in) 47.29:1 5.5:1 Centaur V Additive manufacturing[57][58]
[edit]
  • RL10A-1
    RL10A-1
  • RL10A-3S
    RL10A-3S
  • RL10A-4
    RL10A-4
  • RL10A-4-2
    RL10A-4-2
  • RL10B-2
    RL10B-2

Engines on display

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Sutton, A. M.; Peery, S. D.; Minick, A. B. (January 1998). "50K expander cycle engine demonstration" (PDF). AIP Conference Proceedings. 420: 1062–1065. Bibcode:1998AIPC..420.1062S. doi:10.1063/1.54719. Archived from the original on April 8, 2013.
  2. ^ a b Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10B-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on February 4, 2012. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Aerojet Rocketdyne RL10 Propulsion System" (PDF). Aerojet Rocketdyne. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 30, 2022.
  4. ^ "RL-10C". www.astronautix.com. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
  5. ^ "RL-10A-1". www.astronautix.com. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016. Retrieved April 6, 2020.
  6. ^ Wade, Mark. "Encyclopedia Astronautica—Lunex Project page". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on August 31, 2006.
  7. ^ McCutcheon, Kimble D. "U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution, Part 8.21: The Pratt & Whitney RL10 Engine". Aircraft Engine Historical Society. Retrieved August 28, 2024.
  8. ^ Connors, p 319
  9. ^ "Centaur". Gunter's Space Pages.
  10. ^ a b Sutton, George (2005). History of liquid propellant rocket engines. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 1-56347-649-5.
  11. ^ "Renowned Rocket Engine Celebrates 40 Years of Flight". Pratt & Whitney. November 24, 2003. Archived from the original on June 14, 2011.
  12. ^ "Atlas Centaur 2". National Space Science Data Center. NASA.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Brügge, Norbert. "Evolution of Pratt & Whitney's cryogenic rocket engine RL-10". Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  14. ^ "Titan 3E/Centaur D-1T Systems Summary REPORT NO. CASD·LVP73-007" (PDF). Convair & Martin Marietta Aerospace. September 1, 1973. pp. 2–4. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  15. ^ Wade, Mark. "DCX". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on December 28, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
  16. ^ "Delta 269 (Delta III) Investigation Report" (PDF). Boeing. August 16, 2000. MDC 99H0047A. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 16, 2001.
  17. ^ "Jupiter Launch Vehicle – Technical Performance Summaries". Archived from the original on January 29, 2009. Retrieved July 18, 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  18. ^ "Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine (CECE)". United Technologies Corporation. Archived from the original on March 4, 2012.
  19. ^ "Throttling Back to the Moon". NASA. July 16, 2007. Archived from the original on April 2, 2010.
  20. ^ "NASA Tests Engine Technology for Landing Astronauts on the Moon". NASA. January 14, 2009.
  21. ^ Giuliano, Victor (July 25, 2010). "CECE: Expanding the Envelope of Deep Throttling Technology in Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen Rocket Engines for NASA Exploration Missions" (PDF). NASA Technical Reports Server.
  22. ^ a b c Roseberg, Zach (April 12, 2012). "NASA, US Air Force to study joint rocket engine". Flight Global. Retrieved June 1, 2012.
  23. ^ a b Newton, Kimberly (April 12, 2012). "NASA Partners With U.S. Air Force to Study Common Rocket Propulsion Challenges". NASA. Archived from the original on June 24, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
  24. ^ "RL-10B-2". astronautix.com. Retrieved September 16, 2022.
  25. ^ a b "RL10B-2" (PDF). Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2012. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
  26. ^ "Aerojet Rocketdyne Successfully Tests Complex 3-D Printed Injector in World's Most Reliable Upper Stage Rocket Engine" (Press release). Aerojet Rocketdyne. March 7, 2016. Retrieved April 20, 2017.[permanent dead link]
  27. ^ "Aerojet Rocketdyne Achieves 3-D Printing Milestone with Successful Testing of Full-Scale RL10 Copper Thrust Chamber Assembly" (Press release). Aerojet Rocketdyne. April 3, 2017. Retrieved April 11, 2017.[permanent dead link]
  28. ^ Button, Keith (September 1, 2024). "Improving on the 'gold standard'". Aerospace America. Retrieved August 29, 2025.
  29. ^ a b Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  30. ^ "ULA delays further use of enhanced upper-stage engine pending studies". June 23, 2021.
  31. ^ "United Launch Alliance Selects Aerojet Rocketdyne's RL10 Engine". ULA. May 11, 2018. Retrieved May 13, 2018.
  32. ^ "Vulcan Cutaway Poster" (PDF). United Launch Alliance. Retrieved October 15, 2021.
  33. ^ Belam, Martin (January 8, 2024). "Nasa Peregrine 1 launch: Vulcan Centaur rocket carrying Nasa moon lander lifts off in Florida – live updates". the Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  34. ^ Sloss, Philip (March 4, 2021). "NASA, Boeing looking to begin SLS Exploration Upper Stage manufacturing in 2021". NASASpaceflight. Retrieved October 15, 2021.
  35. ^ "RL-10 Selected for OmegA Rocket". Aerojet Rocketdyne. April 16, 2018. Archived from the original on April 30, 2018. Retrieved May 14, 2018.
  36. ^ a b "Northrop Grumman to terminate OmegA rocket program". SpaceNews. September 9, 2020. Retrieved November 23, 2020.
  37. ^ Kutter, Bernard F.; Zegler, Frank; Barr, Jon; Bulk, Tim; Pitchford, Brian (2009). "Robust Lunar Exploration Using an Efficient Lunar Lander Derived from Existing Upper Stages" (PDF). AIAA. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved March 9, 2011.
  38. ^ Zegler, Frank; Bernard Kutter (September 2, 2010). "Evolving to a Depot-Based Space Transportation Architecture" (PDF). AIAA SPACE 2010 Conference & Exposition. AIAA. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2011. ACES design conceptualization has been underway at ULA for many years. It leverages design features of both the Centaur and Delta Cryogenic Second Stage (DCSS) upper stages and intends to supplement and perhaps replace these stages in the future. ...
  39. ^ Bilstein, Roger E. (1996). "Unconventional Cryogenics: RL-10 and J-2". Stages to Saturn; A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. Washington, D.C.: NASA History Office. Retrieved December 2, 2011.
  40. ^ "Atlas Centaur". Gunter's Space Page. Retrieved February 29, 2012.
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  42. ^ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-4". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  43. ^ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-5". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  44. ^ "Delta IV Launch Services User's Guide, June 2013" (PDF). ULA Launch. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
  45. ^ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-4-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 17, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  46. ^ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10A-4-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on January 30, 2012. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  47. ^ a b "RL10 Engine". Aerojet Rocketdyne. Archived from the original on April 30, 2017. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
  48. ^ Wade, Mark (November 17, 2011). "RL-10B-X". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on November 15, 2011. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  49. ^ "Commons Extensible Cryogenic Engine". Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne. Archived from the original on March 4, 2012. Retrieved February 28, 2012.
  50. ^ "Common Extensible Cryogenic Engine – Aerojet Rocketdyne". www.rocket.com. Archived from the original on November 12, 2014. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
  51. ^ "Cryogenic Propulsion Stage" (PDF). NASA. August 5, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2014.
  52. ^ "Atlas-V with RL10C powered Centaur". forum.nasaspaceflight.com. Retrieved April 8, 2018.
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  57. ^ "Aerojet Rocketdyne Secures Its Largest RL10 Engine Contract From ULA". www.aerojetrocketdyne.com. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
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Bibliography

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