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Renfe Class 100
Series 100 train at Lyon-Part-Dieu station
The interior of an S-100 train.
In service1992 – present
ManufacturerGEC-Alsthom / CAF
Family nameTGV
Refurbished2007 - 2012
Formation2 driving cars and 8 passenger cars per train set
Capacity329
OperatorRenfe Operadora
Lines servedMadrid – Seville
Perpignan – Barcelona Madrid-Alicante (AVE class 112 can serve this line)
Specifications
Train length200.15 m (656 ft 8 in)
Width2.9 m (9 ft 6+1⁄8 in)
Height4.28 m (14 ft 1⁄2 in)
Maximum speed300 km/h (190 mph)
Weight392 tonnes (386 long tons; 432 short tons)
Power output8,800 kW (11,800 hp)
Power supply(?)
Electric systemsOverhead, Dual: 3 kV DC,
25 kV 50 Hz AC
Current collectionPantograph
Safety systemsLZB, ASFA 200 [es], ERTMS TVM430
Track gauge1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge

The Renfe Class 100 is a high-speed train used for AVE services by the Renfe Operadora, in Spain. It was the first high-speed train put into service in Spain, in 1992.

History

[edit]

This class lived through all the changes involved in the creation of the Spanish high-speed network; originally the plan was to build the high-speed route to Andalusia on an Iberian gauge track (1,668 mm (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in)). At the last minute, it was decided that it should be 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge, meaning RENFE changed its original order for 24 Iberian gauge units to sixteen standard gauge ones, which were delivered between 1991 and 1993.

After various changes in the contract with Alstom and compensation for delays the final eight were delivered; two standard gauge sets and 6 Iberian gauge sets. The Iberian sets became the Renfe Class 101 which used to operate the Euromed services along the Mediterranean corridor (this route is now covered by the RENFE Class 130 trains).

Train 100.015 set one of the most important speed records in Spain, reaching 356.8 kilometres per hour (221.7 mph) on a test run. Its previous record had been 330 km/h (210 mph) on an earlier test run. The Class 100 was also involved in speed tests using Talgo carriages.

In 2002 one of the power cars of set 100.012 was severely damaged in a collision. The car was rebuilt by using the newer TGV-Duplex design, giving this set the unique feature of having two different model power cars.

This class has almost exclusively served the Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line. They were used on the Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line for a short period until introduction of the RENFE Class 102. The units used on the Barcelona line had to have their pantographs changed as well as installation of the ERTMS system.

In 2007, after fifteen years of service—half of the trains' expected working life—the entire Class 100 fleet was refurbished.

In February 2011, on account of financial pressures, RENFE announced that, instead of buying 10 new trains to cover the Paris-Madrid route, it would convert AVE Class 100 trains for the route, at a cost of €30 million, rather than €270 million. RENFE announced that the capacity would be increased to keep the cost down, in addition to the conversion work planned for the trains' electrification and signaling systems.[1]

In 2013, some S100 trains have been changed for French homologation making them compatible with French signaling system and so be able to cross the French border. The aim is to create rail service between major French cities and main Spanish cities (Madrid and Barcelona) simultaneously with SNCF. The S100 trains ran this service from 2013, following the cancellation of overnight services from Paris to Madrid and Barcelona, till 2022.[2]

Air Nostrum proposed to lease some from RENFE to operate services from Madrid Atocha to Gare de Montpellier-Saint-Roch from October 2018, however as of September 2025, this has not happened.[3]

Technical information

[edit]

The Series 100 is directly derived from the TGV Atlantique trains that operate in France. Eight sets were manufactured by Alstom and the remainder by CAF.

A Series 100 train is made up of two 4,400 kW power cars with two motorized bogies each and eight passenger cars with shared bogies. It is compatible with the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge. It is compatible with overhead currents of 3 kV DC and 25 kV 50 Hz alternating current.

Unlike its model, it has both the ASFA 200 [es] (used in Spain) and Linienzugbeeinflussung (used in Germany and in Spain) signaling systems. Furthermore, since 2004 nine of the trains have the ERTMS system installed, as well as two extra coaches and cooling systems specially adapted to temperatures in Spain.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Renfe Class 100

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Renfe Class 100, also designated as the S-100 or Serie 100, is a high-speed electric multiple-unit trainset operated by Renfe Operadora, Spain's state-owned railway company, and represents the inaugural high-speed rolling stock introduced in the country in 1992 for the Alta Velocidad Española (AVE) network.[1] Derived from the French TGV Atlantique design by Alstom, it features a fixed formation of two end power cars each rated at 4,400 kW (total 8,800 kW) and eight articulated intermediate trailer cars supported by 13 bogies, with a total length of 200.15 meters, a width of 2.904 meters, and a service capacity of 347 passengers.[2] Capable of operating at a maximum speed of 300 km/h on standard-gauge (1,435 mm) high-speed lines, it is equipped with advanced signaling systems including ASFA, LZB, and later ERTMS for safety and interoperability.[3] Initially procured as 16 units (with an original plan for 24 on Iberian broad gauge before adaptation to international standard gauge), the Class 100 fleet was built primarily by Alstom between 1991 and 1993, with additional assembly by Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) for later units, enabling bidirectional operation without turning.[4] The trains entered service on the inaugural AVE line from Madrid to Seville ahead of the 1992 Expo, achieving a world record speed of 356.8 km/h during testing and revolutionizing intercity travel in Spain by reducing the journey time to under 2.5 hours.[2] Over the years, the fleet underwent significant refurbishments, including interior modernizations in 2005–2009 and electrical upgrades in 2013–2018 to support trielectric capability (25 kV 50 Hz AC, 3 kV DC, and 1.5 kV DC) for cross-border operations into France, with 22 units in the fleet remaining active as of 2023.[4] In operation, the Class 100 primarily serves key AVE routes such as Madrid–Seville, Madrid–Alicante, and Madrid–Huesca, while also facilitating international services like Barcelona–Lyon, Barcelona–Toulouse, and Madrid–Marseille in cooperation with SNCF, often in coupled formations during peak demand to accommodate up to 694 passengers.[3] Amenities include two classes of seating—Turista (standard) and Confort (premium)—a bistro car for meals and refreshments, power outlets at all seats, and Wi-Fi access via the PlayRENFE system, with accessibility features for passengers with reduced mobility.[3] Despite the introduction of newer series like the S-102 and S-103, the Class 100 continues to play a vital role in Renfe's high-speed fleet, underscoring Spain's early adoption of TGV-derived technology and its ongoing contributions to Europe's interconnected rail network.[1]

Development

Design Origins

The Renfe Class 100, also known as the AVE S-100, originated from Spain's ambitious high-speed rail program initiated in the late 1980s to modernize its transportation infrastructure and align with European standards ahead of the 1992 Universal Exposition in Seville. This initiative focused on constructing the Madrid-Seville high-speed line, spanning 471 km, to facilitate rapid connectivity and showcase technological advancement during the Expo. The planning emphasized integrating Spain into the broader European rail network, prompting Renfe to issue an international tender in 1988 for 24 high-speed trainsets capable of operating at up to 300 km/h.[5][6] The design drew directly from the French TGV Atlantique, Alstom's established high-speed platform introduced in 1989, but underwent significant adaptations to suit Spanish operational requirements. Key changes included reconfiguration for the international standard gauge of 1,435 mm, contrasting with France's broader network compatibility, and incorporation of dual-voltage capability to handle Spain's electrification systems of 3 kV DC for legacy lines and 25 kV 50 Hz AC for high-speed routes. These modifications ensured seamless interoperability while maintaining the articulated power car-trailer configuration of the TGV Atlantique for efficiency and stability at high speeds.[5][7] Further tailoring addressed the Iberian Peninsula's unique environmental and topographical challenges, including hotter climates, extensive tunneling (17 tunnels on the inaugural route), and steep gradients up to 30‰. Enhancements to aerodynamics, such as refined nose profiles and pressure-tight body structures, mitigated pressure waves in tunnels and improved passenger comfort during 300 km/h operations, while upgraded air-conditioning and braking systems handled thermal stresses and slope demands. These adaptations prioritized reliability in Spain's varied terrain over the more uniform French landscape.[5] The project exemplified international collaboration, with Renfe partnering closely with the French National Railways (SNCF) and Alstom to leverage proven TGV technology while fostering local expertise through technology transfer. Manufacturing involved joint efforts across six French and five Spanish sites, achieving up to 90% local content in later units, including traction motors produced in Barcelona and electric equipment in Valencia. This partnership not only accelerated development but also built Spanish capacity for future high-speed rail innovations.[5]

Procurement and Construction

In 1988, Renfe issued an international tender for 24 high-speed trainsets as part of its initiative to launch AVE services, with GEC-Alsthom (now Alstom) selected as the primary contractor that year and the contract signed in 1989.[5] Due to the decision to standardize new high-speed lines on standard gauge (1,435 mm) rather than the traditional Iberian broad gauge, the original order was reduced to 16 standard gauge units to align with infrastructure developments. This adjustment reflected broader efforts to integrate Spain's rail network with international standards while maintaining compatibility for future expansions. Subsequently, Renfe placed an additional order for 8 units in the early 1990s, comprising 2 standard gauge sets and 6 Iberian gauge sets to support both high-speed and conventional operations.[2] Manufacturing responsibilities were divided between GEC-Alsthom, which handled the power cars and initial assembly for the first 8 units at its Belfort facility in France, and Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) in Spain, which produced the passenger cars and assembled the remaining units in locations such as Beasain and Zaragoza.[8] This consortium approach ensured technology transfer to Spanish industry, achieving up to 90% local content in later production phases and fostering expertise in high-speed rail assembly.[5] Deliveries commenced with the initial 16 standard gauge units arriving between 1991 and 1993, enabling timely preparation for the Madrid-Seville line opening.[9] The additional 8 units followed between 1994 and 1995, completing the fleet expansion without significant delays after contractual adjustments for gauge modifications.[2] This resulted in a total of 18 standard-gauge units for the Class 100. The procurement, valued in the hundreds of millions of euros though exact figures remain tied to confidential agreements, stimulated the Spanish rail sector by generating thousands of jobs in manufacturing and engineering, while enhancing domestic capabilities through collaborative industrial partnerships.[5]

Testing and Commissioning

Performance Trials

The performance trials for the Renfe Class 100 commenced in April 1992 on Spanish railway lines, where the trainset first exceeded 300 km/h, validating its high-speed capabilities on the infrastructure designed for the Madrid-Seville route. These initial dynamic tests focused on overall system performance, including acceleration, stability, and power delivery under real-world track conditions, building on the train's TGV-derived design to ensure reliability for impending commercial operations.[6] A key milestone during the dynamic testing phase came on 8 August 1992, when trainset 100.015 achieved 356.8 km/h (221.7 mph) between Mora and Urda, establishing a Spanish record for a standard-gauge high-speed train and demonstrating the unit's potential beyond its operational maximum of 300 km/h.[10] This record run highlighted the effectiveness of the train's propulsion system, comprising eight asynchronous motors delivering a total power output of 8,800 kW, while confirming aerodynamic and structural integrity at elevated speeds.[2] Extensive validation efforts targeted critical safety and operational systems, including the multi-mode braking setup with rheostatic, automatic, immobilisation, and parking functions, where electric regenerative braking takes precedence to optimize energy recovery and minimize wear during high-speed deceleration. Signaling integration was a focal point, with early tests ensuring compatibility with Spain's ASFA (Anuncio de Señales y Frenado Automático) system, necessitating adaptations from the French TVM (Transmission Voie-Machine) used in the base TGV Atlantique design to meet national safety standards. Endurance assessments involved prolonged runs to evaluate component durability, thermal management, and overall resilience.[7] Trials revealed challenges in harmonizing the train with Spanish-specific requirements, such as fine-tuning ASFA responsiveness for precise speed supervision and addressing environmental factors like high ambient temperatures affecting cooling and electronics performance on Iberian tracks. These issues were resolved through iterative adjustments, culminating in successful system validations that paved the way for certification.[7]

Certification and Approvals

The Renfe Class 100 underwent rigorous homologation processes to comply with Spanish national railway standards, particularly emphasizing the integration of the ASFA (Anuncio de Señales y Frenado Automático) system, an automatic train protection mechanism designed to announce signals and enforce braking for enhanced safety on Spanish networks.[11] This included the ASFA 200 variant tailored for high-speed operations, featuring trackside balises for continuous monitoring and speed supervision.[11] Additionally, the trains incorporated the LZB (Linienzugbeeinflussung) signaling system, a continuous automatic train control technology borrowed from German standards, to ensure precise speed regulation and collision avoidance on dedicated high-speed tracks.[12] In 1992, safety certifications were issued by Spanish railway authorities under the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, verifying the Class 100's adherence to UIC (International Union of Railways) standards for high-speed rail, including structural integrity, aerodynamic performance, and braking efficiency suitable for operations up to 300 km/h.[11] These approvals confirmed the trains' compatibility with international gauge (1,435 mm) infrastructure, marking a pivotal step in aligning Spain's rail system with European norms.[12] The certifications followed dynamic and static tests that validated the fleet's reliability under high-speed conditions. Adaptations for dual electrification were a key aspect of the homologation, with the initial 16 units (100.001 to 100.016) equipped as bi-voltage capable of operating on 25 kV 50 Hz AC for high-speed lines and 3 kV DC for conventional Iberian gauge networks, ensuring seamless interoperability.[13] This design facilitated compatibility with the Madrid-Seville high-speed line's infrastructure, which employs 25 kV AC overhead catenary and centralized traffic control from the Atocha operations center.[12] The approval timeline began with government endorsement of the high-speed project in 1986, progressed through line construction decisions in 1988, and concluded with final validations in early 1992, enabling official commissioning on April 21, 1992.[12][6]

Operational History

Initial Deployment

The Renfe Class 100 initiated its maiden commercial service on 21 April 1992, marking the launch of Spain's first high-speed rail connection between Madrid Atocha and Seville Santa Justa via Córdoba. This debut aligned closely with the opening of the Universal Exhibition (Expo '92) in Seville on 20 April, serving as a key infrastructural highlight for the event and symbolizing Spain's modernization efforts ahead of the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. The 471 km route replaced a previously saturated conventional line constrained by tight curves and speeds of 70-100 km/h, enabling seamless integration into the national transport network.[14][6] In its early phase, 16 Class 100 units were dedicated exclusively to the Madrid-Seville line, operating at maximum speeds of 300 km/h to achieve end-to-end journey times of 2 hours and 30 minutes—a substantial reduction from the prior 5.5-hour conventional service. This fleet configuration initially supported 6 daily services (3 in each direction), with each trainset comprising two power cars and eight passenger cars accommodating around 300 passengers in a mix of standard, club, and preferential seating. The service emphasized reliability from the outset, including a pioneering punctuality guarantee offering ticket refunds for delays exceeding five minutes.[14][6] Passenger reception was overwhelmingly positive, with the Class 100 trains integrated under the AVE (Alta Velocidad Española) branding to promote high-speed travel as a premium, efficient alternative to air and road options. Ridership on the route surged from approximately 1.2 million passengers in 1992 to over 3 million by 1995, reflecting strong demand driven by competitive fares, comfort features like air conditioning and onboard dining, and the Expo's influx of visitors. This growth underscored the service's role in modal shift, capturing a significant share of intercity travel between the capital and Andalusia.[15] Early operations faced challenges, including intensive staff training programs to adapt personnel to high-speed protocols, safety systems, and customer service standards, as well as synchronizing train schedules with the newly built dedicated infrastructure to meet the politically imposed Expo deadline. These efforts ensured smooth rollout despite the compressed timeline, though initial adjustments were needed for optimal performance and maintenance routines.[14][6]

Route Expansions and International Use

Following the initial deployment on the Madrid–Seville high-speed line, the Renfe Class 100 continued operations on expanding standard-gauge AVE routes within Spain. A significant evolution came with preparations for international operations, enabled by the opening of the 44 km Perpignan–Figueres high-speed link in December 2010, which connected Spain's AVE network to the French LGV system via the Perthus Tunnel. To operate across the border, four units originally classified as S-101 (Iberian broad gauge, 1,668 mm) were re-gauged to standard gauge (1,435 mm), modified for 1.5 kV DC electrification, and equipped with the French TVM 430 cab signaling system for compatibility with SNCF infrastructure.[16][17] Homologation testing in France began in late 2012, with dynamic trials under 1.5 kV DC power conducted near Laroche-Migennes, culminating in full certification by 2013.[16] International services commenced in 2013 under the Elipsos joint venture between Renfe and SNCF, with Class 100 trains operating the Barcelona–Perpignan route extended to Paris via Figueres-Vilafant and the French high-speed network.[18] Additional routes included Madrid–Marseille, providing direct cross-border connectivity and replacing earlier overnight services.[19] These operations marked the first regular high-speed passenger services between Spain and France using Spanish rolling stock, with trains achieving speeds up to 300 km/h on compatible sections.[18] At their peak before the COVID-19 pandemic, the services offered multiple daily connections, though exact frequencies varied; passenger volumes supported consistent operations until demand declined sharply, dropping over 50% post-2020 due to travel restrictions.[19] The joint venture was dissolved in December 2022 amid ongoing losses, low ridership recovery, and competition from newer low-cost operators. However, Renfe resumed independent international AVE services using Class 100 trains, launching the Barcelona–Toulouse route (with stops in Girona, Figueres, Perpignan, and Carcassonne) in April 2025, offering up to six daily trains seasonally. As of November 2025, these services have carried over 1 million passengers since relaunch, contributing to the ongoing role of Class 100 in cross-border connectivity.[20][21]

Technical Specifications

Train Formation and Dimensions

The Renfe Class 100 trainset features a fixed formation consisting of two end power cars, designated Ta and Tb, and eight intermediate passenger cars. This layout includes dedicated buffet and club cars among the intermediates to provide dining and premium lounge facilities. The design is articulated, with Jacobs bogies shared between adjacent intermediate cars to enhance stability and ride quality at high speeds.[7][2] Key dimensions and weights of the Class 100 are as follows:
ParameterValue
Overall length200.15 m
Width2.904 m
Height4.28 m
Empty weight392 tonnes
These measurements support operations on standard-gauge high-speed lines while maintaining aerodynamic efficiency.[7][2] In its standard configuration, the train offers a seating capacity of 329 passengers, comprising 200 seats in Turista (second class) arranged in a 2+2 layout across four cars and 129 seats in Preferente (first class) in a 2+1 layout across three cars, with the remaining car dedicated to buffet services. For high-demand services, such as international routes, the configuration can be adjusted by removing club facilities to increase capacity to 347 seats. This flexibility allows adaptation to varying passenger volumes without altering the core formation.[2]

Propulsion and Power Systems

The Renfe Class 100, also known as the S-100, originally features a dual-voltage power supply system designed to operate on both conventional Spanish lines and dedicated high-speed sections. It draws power from 3 kV DC for legacy electrified networks and 25 kV 50 Hz AC for high-speed routes, enabling seamless transitions without stopping.[7] Subsequent upgrades from 2013 to 2018 added 1.5 kV DC capability to select units for cross-border operations into France, making them trielectric (25 kV 50 Hz AC, 3 kV DC, and 1.5 kV DC).[2] This configuration supports a total power output of 8,800 kW under AC supply and 5,400 kW under 3 kV DC, distributed across two power cars each equipped with four traction motors.[7] Traction is provided by eight three-phase synchronous self-ventilated motors (model SM44-39B), each rated at 1,100 kW continuous power, controlled via thyristor inverters for variable frequency operation.[7] A remotorization program in 2018 modernized these motors on active units for improved efficiency and reliability.[2] These motors, housed in the power cars' bogies, enable a maximum operational speed of 300 km/h, with the design allowing up to 310 km/h under optimal conditions.[1] The system prioritizes smooth acceleration and high efficiency, drawing on TGV Atlantique-derived technology adapted for Spanish infrastructure.[1] The braking setup integrates regenerative and rheostatic capabilities on the power cars for energy recovery and dissipation, supplemented by pneumatic disc brakes on trailer bogies and block brakes on motor bogies for precise control and emergency stops.[7] Safety is enhanced by onboard systems including LZB for continuous automatic train control on high-speed lines and ASFA 200 for signal announcement and automatic braking on conventional routes.[7] Select units have been upgraded with ERTMS Level 1 for interoperability and TVM 430 for cross-border operations into France, ensuring compliance with international standards.[1]

Fleet Status and Maintenance

Refurbishments and Upgrades

The Renfe Class 100 fleet underwent a major mid-life refurbishment program, designated the "Plan de Media Vida," which began in June 2007 and extended through July 2008 for the original 18 units. This initiative, led by Renfe in collaboration with Alstom, focused on extending the trains' service life by addressing mechanical wear and modernizing passenger amenities. Key works included a comprehensive inspection and replacement of mechanical elements such as bogies and braking systems, which were found to be in good condition overall but required updates for worn components.[22] Interior refurbishments formed a core part of the program, involving a full redesign to enhance comfort and functionality. New ergonomic seating configurations were installed, along with updated flooring, interior doors, and improved heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for better climate control across all passenger classes. Accessibility was significantly upgraded, with features such as wider aisles, dedicated spaces for wheelchairs, and tactile indicators to better accommodate passengers with reduced mobility. These changes aligned the interiors with contemporary standards while maintaining the trains' high-speed operational integrity.[22] The program was subsequently expanded to cover the full fleet of 24 units, incorporating similar interior renewals and technological adaptations to ensure uniformity and reliability across all trainsets. Alstom played a pivotal role in these upgrades, integrating updates to onboard diagnostics and control systems without altering the core propulsion setup.[23] To support international operations, Renfe contracted Alstom in January 2011 for the adaptation of 10 Class 100 units specifically for cross-border high-speed services into France, at a cost of €29.7 million. These modifications enabled compatibility with the French 25 kV 50 Hz electrification system and incorporated the TVM (Transmission Voie-Machine) cab signaling essential for LGV lines. The upgrades also included pantograph enhancements and software recalibrations for seamless interoperability at the Spain-France border. The adapted units entered revenue service in December 2013 on routes such as Barcelona to Marseille and Lyon, marking the first direct high-speed AVE connections between the two countries.[24][25] These refurbishment efforts have proven effective in prolonging the fleet's viability, with the trains' projected service life extended to about 40 years from their 1992 introduction, supporting operations through at least 2032 on both domestic and international routes.[26]

Current Operations and Future Outlook

As of November 2025, the Renfe Class 100 fleet comprises 22 active units out of 24 built, primarily deployed on principal AVE high-speed routes including Madrid-Seville, Madrid-Alicante, and select regional services within Spain's rail network.[7] Adapted units continue to support international AVE services to France, which resumed after a suspension in December 2022; current routes include Barcelona-Lyon, Barcelona-Marseille (extended to Madrid), and Barcelona-Toulouse (launched in Q2 2025), reaching one million cross-border passengers by February 2025.[21] In daily operations, the active Class 100 units contribute significantly to Renfe's high-speed network, collectively covering up to 100,000 kilometers per month while achieving an availability rate above 95%, supported by recent refurbishments that enhanced reliability and interior configurations.[7] This performance underscores their role in sustaining high passenger volumes on established corridors, where they operate alongside newer series to meet demand amid growing ridership, which reached a record 277.4 million passengers across Renfe services in the first half of 2025.[27] Looking ahead, the Class 100 is part of Renfe's broader fleet modernization plans through 2030 to improve efficiency and capacity on high-speed lines. Opportunities for export or repurposing the units on conventional lines are under consideration, potentially extending their service life beyond primary AVE duties. Complementing these plans, ongoing electrification upgrades across the fleet align with EU rail sustainability objectives, including reduced emissions through enhanced energy recovery systems and renewable power integration, as financed by European Investment Bank loans totaling €225 million for sustainable transport initiatives.[28]

References

  1. AVE - Railway Technology
  2. Renfe 100: Spanish high-speed train - All PYRENEES
  3. Travelling on the original AVE trains in Spain | ShowMeTheJourney
  4. French HS 10: Renfe AVE 100
  5. None
  6. Alstom celebrates the 30th anniversary of the first high-speed train in ...
  7. S-100 - Renfe
  8. Renfe AVE S-100 - Train of the Week
  9. Jouef: high speed train AVE 100 RENFE
  10. World rail speed records | Data & Analysis - Railway Gazette
  11. El AVE cumple 25 años: así era en 1992 y así es ahora - Xataka
  12. LAV Madrid-Sevilla - Historia - Adif - AV
  13. [PDF] Sistemas de tracción eléctrica ferroviaria - UVaDOC Principal
  14. LAV Madrid-Sevilla - Historia - Adif - AV
  15. Spain. The Spanish high speed train “AVE” Madrid
  16. RENFE Class 100 On Test In France - Railvolution
  17. Renfe loses patience with France - International Railway Journal
  18. RENFE starts tests before relaunching cross-border high speed ...
  19. SNCF to end cross-border high-speed cooperation with Renfe
  20. Energy consumption of the South-East and the Atlantic TGV
  21. Comienza la remodelación de los AVE del Madrid-Sevilla - Vía Libre
  22. Diez trenes AVE de la serie 100 aumentarán su capacidad para ...
  23. [PDF] ALSTOM EN ESPAÑA Y PORTUGAL.
  24. Alstom adaptará 10 trenes para el ave barcelona-parís por 29,7 ...
  25. Renfe necesita nuevos trenes para el Mediterráneo y el País Vasco
  26. Cross-Border Turmoil In France And Spain - Railvolution
  27. RENFE reiterates Paris plans after successful open access launch
  28. https://railmarket.com/news/passenger-rail/36577-renfe-reports-the-strongest-ever-h1-in-its-history-277-4-million-passengers
  29. Overview of new trains and locomotives for Renfe | RAILMARKET.com
  30. Spain: EIB lends €225 million to Renfe for high-speed and freight ...
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