Hubbry Logo
VactrainVactrainMain
Open search
Vactrain
Community hub
Vactrain
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Vactrain
Vactrain
Vactrain
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

A vactrain (or vacuum tube train) is a proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation. It is a maglev (magnetic levitation) line using partly evacuated tubes or tunnels. Reduced air resistance could permit vactrains to travel at very high (hypersonic) speeds with relatively little power—up to 6,400–8,000 km/h (4,000–5,000 mph). This is 5–6 times the speed of sound in Earth's atmosphere at sea level.[1]

18th century

[edit]
Main article: Atmospheric railway

In 1799, George Medhurst of London conceived of and patented an atmospheric railway that could convey people or cargo through pressurized or evacuated tubes. The early atmospheric railways and pneumatic tube transport systems (such as the Dalkey Atmospheric Railway) relied on steam power for propulsion.

19th century

[edit]

In 1888, Michel Verne, son of Jules Verne, imagined a submarine pneumatic tube transport system that could propel a passenger capsule at speeds up to 1,800 km/h (1,100 mph) under the Atlantic Ocean (a transatlantic tunnel) in a short story called "An Express of the Future".[2]

20th century

[edit]

The vactrain proper was invented by Robert H. Goddard as a freshman at Worcester Polytechnic Institute in the United States in 1904.[3] Goddard subsequently refined the idea in a 1906 short story called "The High-Speed Bet", which was summarized and published in a Scientific American editorial in 1909 called "The Limit of Rapid Transit". Esther, his wife, was granted a US patent for the vactrain in 1950, five years after his death.[4]

In 1909, Russian professor Boris Weinberg [ru] built the world's first model of his proposed version of the vactrain at Tomsk Polytechnic University.[5][6] He later published a vactrain concept in 1914 in the book Motion without friction (airless electric way).

In 1955, in his novel The Magellan Nebula, Polish science-fiction writer Stanisław Lem wrote about an intercontinental vactrain called "organowiec", which moved in a transparent tube at a speed higher than 1,666 km/h (1,035 mph). In April 1962, the vactrain appears in the story "Mercenary" by Mack Reynolds,[7] where he mentions Vacuum Tube Transport in passing.

During the 1970s, a leading vactrain advocate, Robert M. Salter of RAND Corporation, published a series of elaborate engineering articles.[8][9]

An interview with Robert Salter appeared in the Los Angeles Times (June 11, 1972). He discussed, in detail, the relative ease with which the U.S. government could build a tube shuttle system using technologies available at that time. Maglev being poorly developed at the time, he proposed steel wheels. The chamber's door to the tube would be opened, and enough air admitted behind to accelerate the train into the tube. Gravity would further accelerate the departing train down to cruise level. Rising from cruise level, the arriving train would decelerate by compressing the rarefied air ahead of it, which would be vented. Pumps at the stations would make up for losses due to friction or air escaping around the edges of the train, the train itself requiring no motor. This combination of modified (shallow) gravity train and atmospheric railway propulsion would consume little energy but limit the system to subsonic speeds, hence initial routes of tens or hundreds of miles or kilometers rather than transcontinental distances were proposed. [10]

Trains were to require no couplers, each car being directly welded, bolted, or otherwise firmly connected to the next, the route calling for no more bending than the flexibility of steel could easily handle. At the end of the line, the train would be moved sideways into the end chamber of the return tube. The railway would have both an inner evacuated tube and an outer tunnel. At cruise depth, the space between would have enough water to float the vacuum tube, softening the ride.[citation needed]

A route through the Northeast Megalopolis was laid out, with nine stations, one each in Washington DC, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and two in Connecticut. Commuter rail systems were mapped for the San Francisco and New York areas, the commuter version having longer, heavier trains, to be propelled less by air and more by gravity than the intercity version. The New York system was to have three lines, terminating in Babylon, Paterson, Huntington, Elizabeth, White Plains, and St. George.[citation needed]

Salter pointed out how such a system would help reduce the environmental damage being done to the atmosphere by aviation and surface transportation. He called underground Very High Speed Transportation (tube shuttles) his nation's "logical next step". The plans were never taken to the next stage.[citation needed]

At the time these reports were published, national prestige was an issue as Japan had been operating its showcase shinkansen for several years and maglev train research was hot technology. The American Planetran would establish a transcontinental subway service in the United States and provide a commute from Los Angeles to New York City in one hour. The tunnel would be buried to a depth of several hundred feet in solid rock formations. Construction would make use of lasers to ensure alignment and use tungsten probes to melt through igneous rock formations. The tunnel would maintain a partial vacuum to minimize drag. A trip would average 4,800 km/h (3,000 mph) and subject passengers to accelerations up to 1.4 times that of gravity, requiring the use of gimballed compartments. Enormous construction costs (estimated as high as US$1 trillion) were the primary reason why Salter's proposal was never built.[citation needed]

Swissmetro as proposed in 2005

Starting in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Swissmetro was proposed to leverage the invention of the experimental German Transrapid maglev train, and operate in large tunnels reduced to the pressure altitude of 21,000 m (68,000 ft) at which the Concorde SST was certified to fly.[citation needed]

In the 1980s, Frank P. Davidson, a founder and chairman of the Channel Tunnel project, and Japanese engineer Yoshihiro Kyotani [ja] tackled the transoceanic problems with a proposal to float a tube above the ocean floor, anchored with cables (a submerged floating tunnel). The transit tube would remain at least 300 m (1,000 ft) below the ocean surface to avoid water turbulence.[citation needed]

On November 18, 1991, Gerard K. O'Neill filed a patent application for a vactrain system. He called the company he wanted to form VSE International, for velocity, silence, and efficiency.[11] However, the concept itself he called Magnetic Flight. The vehicles, instead of running on a pair of tracks, would be elevated using electromagnetic force by a single track within a tube (permanent magnets in the track, with variable magnets on the vehicle), and propelled by electromagnetic forces through tunnels. He estimated the trains could reach speeds of up to 4,000 km/h (2,500 mph) – about five times faster than a jet airliner – if the air was evacuated from the tunnels.[12] To obtain such speeds, the vehicle would accelerate for the first half of the trip, and then decelerate for the second half of the trip. The acceleration was planned to be a maximum of about one-half of the force of gravity. O'Neill planned to build a network of stations connected by these tunnels, but he died two years before his first patent on it was granted.[11]

21st century

[edit]
Image of Hyperloop system
An image of a proposed implementation of the Hyperloop system

In 2001, James R. Powell – a co-inventor of superconducting maglev in the 1960s – began leading an investigation into the prospect of using a maglev vactrain for space launch, dubbed StarTram. Theoretically, this would incur two orders of magnitude less cost than current rockets. The StarTram proposal would have vehicles reach up to 14,300 to 31,500 km/h (8,900 to 19,600 mph) within a lengthy acceleration tunnel.[13]

ET3 claim to have achieved some work that resulted in a patent on "evacuated tube transport technology" which was granted in 2009.[14] They presented their idea in 2013 on public stage.[15]

In August 2013 Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla and SpaceX, published the Hyperloop Alpha paper, proposing and examining a route running from the Los Angeles region to the San Francisco Bay Area, roughly following the Interstate 5 corridor.[16] The Hyperloop concept has been explicitly "open-sourced" by Musk and SpaceX, and others have been encouraged to take the ideas and further develop them.

To that end, a few companies have been formed, and several interdisciplinary student-led teams are working to advance the technology.[17] SpaceX built an approximately 1-mile-long (1.6 km) subscale track for its pod design competition at its headquarters in Hawthorne, California.[18]

China is building a vactrain test track in Datong.[19]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Vactrain

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A vactrain, short for , is a proposed mode of high-speed ground transportation that employs () vehicles traveling within low-pressure or evacuated tubes to drastically reduce aerodynamic drag and enable speeds exceeding 1,000 km/h (620 mph). This design eliminates the friction from air resistance encountered by conventional , allowing for efficient, near-hypersonic travel over long distances while using automated pods for passengers and freight. Key components include sealed tunnels maintained at pressures as low as 100 Pa, propulsion systems for levitation and acceleration, and mechanisms at stations to preserve the without full depressurization. The concept of vactrains originated over a century ago, with early theoretical designs proposed by American physicist Robert Goddard in the early 1900s, envisioning pneumatic tubes for rapid transit. Significant advancements emerged in the 1990s through experiments at MIT, where researchers like Ernst G. Frankel demonstrated maglev prototypes reaching 930 km/h (580 mph) in partial vacuums, highlighting the potential for transcontinental routes such as Boston to New York in under 40 minutes. Proponents like Daryl Oster's Evacuated Tube Transport Technologies (ET3) have licensed the technology to over 60 entities, including 12 in China, focusing on modular systems capable of speeds up to 6,500 km/h (4,000 mph). Advantages include energy efficiency—potentially 10 times lower drag than atmospheric trains—and environmental benefits from electric propulsion, as explored in solar-powered variants generating surplus energy for grid sale. Despite promising feasibility studies, vactrains face substantial challenges, including high initial construction costs for vacuum-sealed and complex safety protocols for low-pressure environments. Recent progress includes China's 2022 test of a vactrain achieving 129 km/h (80 mph) in a low- tube; by 2024, tests reached 1,000 km/h (621 mph) with a , with ongoing plans for a 60 km (37-mile) track. Integration concepts, like underground stations at Poland's planned Solidarity Hub, underscore growing interest in vactrains as intermodal links for mega-hubs, though full-scale deployment remains experimental pending further economic and technical validation.

Overview

Definition and Concept

A vactrain, or train, is a proposed transportation system that utilizes () technology within low-pressure or near-vacuum tubes to drastically reduce air resistance, enabling theoretical speeds exceeding 1,000 km/h. By operating in an evacuated environment, the system eliminates aerodynamic drag and friction from wheels, allowing for efficient, ultra-rapid transit over long distances. This concept positions vactrains as a transformative alternative to conventional rail and , potentially revolutionizing intercity mobility. The core idea of the vactrain merges historical pneumatic tube dispatch mechanisms—small-scale systems for transporting documents or goods through air pressure—with contemporary principles to facilitate point-to-point or freight between cities in mere minutes. Early precursors, such as 19th-century atmospheric railways that used partial vacuums for propulsion, laid conceptual groundwork, though modern vactrains emphasize sealed, straight tubes for sustained high velocities without energy loss to air. At its essence, the system envisions streamlined pods or capsules rather than traditional full-length trains, optimizing for discrete, on-demand journeys in dedicated infrastructure. While often conflated in popular discourse, "vactrain" serves as the broader term for vacuum-tube systems, whereas "" refers specifically to a branded concept outlined by in , which incorporates air-bearing suspension in low-pressure tubes rather than pure maglev levitation. This distinction highlights vactrains' focus on magnetic propulsion in fully evacuated environments for maximal efficiency, with capsules designed to carry dozens of passengers or cargo units along fixed, linear routes spanning hundreds of kilometers.

Basic Operating Principles

Vactrains operate by transporting passenger or cargo pods through low-pressure tubes, where the near-vacuum environment dramatically reduces aerodynamic drag. At an operating pressure of approximately 100 Pa (1 mbar), air resistance is minimized to about 1/1000th of that at sea level, achieving a drag reduction of over 99%. This allows for theoretical top speeds exceeding 6,000 km/h, though practical limits are imposed by human tolerance to g-forces during acceleration and turns. Without significant air drag, the primary energy losses shift from aerodynamic friction to magnetic interactions between the pod and tube. Levitation in vactrains is achieved through (maglev) systems, which suspend the pods above the tube floor without physical contact. These systems employ either superconducting magnets, which generate strong persistent magnetic fields via the , or electromagnets that create repulsive or attractive forces to maintain a stable gap of several millimeters. By eliminating wheel-rail friction, maglev reduces mechanical drag to negligible levels, enabling efficient high-speed travel with energy consumption focused primarily on rather than support. Propulsion is provided by linear induction or synchronous motors distributed along the tube, which induce electromagnetic fields to accelerate and maintain pod velocity. These motors generate thrust by interacting with conductive elements on the pod, achieving accelerations up to while allowing for precise speed control. During deceleration, the system incorporates to recover , converting it back into electrical power and improving overall efficiency through energy recovery in reversible operations. For passengers, vactrain pods are sealed capsules that maintain a normal and climate-controlled interior, isolating riders from the external . Acceleration is limited to (9.81 m/s²) to ensure comfort, comparable to commercial aircraft takeoff, with average operational speeds of 1,000–1,200 km/h on long routes. This design minimizes physiological stress, allowing travel times that rival or surpass air transport while avoiding and noise associated with atmospheric flight.

History

Early Concepts (18th–19th Centuries)

The earliest concepts for tube-based transport systems emerged in the late , predating widespread and focusing on principles to propel vehicles or capsules through enclosed tubes using air pressure or vacuum. In 1799, Scottish engineer invented the message system, which used to dispatch small carriers containing letters or parcels through tubes, laying the groundwork for rapid, enclosed transit without animal or steam power. This innovation, initially applied to short-distance communication in factories and offices, demonstrated the feasibility of air-driven propulsion for lightweight loads. Building on Murdoch's ideas, English inventor George Medhurst advanced the concept in the early with proposals for larger-scale underground pneumatic dispatch . In 1812, Medhurst detailed a system of iron buried along roadways, where air pressure generated by steam-powered pumps would propel capsules carrying or passengers at speeds up to 60 , eliminating the need for horses or locomotives on surface routes. His 1810 pamphlet "A New Method of Conveying Letters and with Great Certainty and Rapidity by Air" and subsequent publication "A New System of Inland Conveyance" emphasized cost savings and efficiency for urban and intercity travel, though no full-scale implementation occurred due to challenges. By the mid-19th century, these ideas evolved into experimental atmospheric railways, which used partial vacuum in tubes laid between rails to draw piston-equipped trains forward via stationary engines. Prominent engineer championed such systems in during the , overseeing trials on the South Devon Railway where trains achieved speeds of up to 30 miles per hour over short distances, including steeper gradients than conventional steam locomotives could manage. Earlier demonstrations, such as the 1840 Wormwood Scrubs test track, validated the piston-in-tube mechanism for loads up to 11 tons at 22.5 miles per hour. In the United States, systems for mail emerged in the 1860s, with a notable 1867 demonstration in showcasing air-propelled carriers for postal dispatch, which later expanded into operational networks serving the city until 1953. Despite initial promise, these early pneumatic systems faced significant limitations that curtailed their adoption by the late . High energy demands for operating air pumps and maintaining —often requiring powerful stationary engines—proved costly and inefficient for long distances. Seal failures were a persistent issue, as seals degraded quickly, leaked air, and required frequent with , which attracted and exacerbated maintenance problems. These challenges led to the abandonment of most atmospheric railways by the , though the concepts influenced later developments by highlighting the advantages of reduced-friction, enclosed propulsion.

20th Century Developments

In the early 20th century, American engineer and rocket pioneer conceptualized a high-speed transportation system using evacuated tubes to minimize air resistance, with vehicles propelled by air pressure differentials across tube sections. This design aimed to enable rapid intercity travel, such as from to New York in approximately 12 minutes at speeds around 1,000 mph. Goddard's ideas built briefly on 19th-century foundations for message dispatch but integrated electromagnetic principles for passenger-scale railcars. He formalized the invention in U.S. Patent 2,511,979, filed in 1945 and granted posthumously in 1950. Mid-20th-century advancements shifted toward theoretical studies combining vacuum environments with emerging (maglev) technology. In the 1970s, the explored the "Very High Speed Transit System" (VHST) and "Planetran" concepts, proposing underground evacuated tubes for maglev vehicles to achieve transcontinental speeds exceeding 14,000 mph, potentially crossing the in 21 minutes or one hour, respectively. These studies envisioned rarefied atmospheres (partial vacuums) to drastically reduce aerodynamic drag, with electromagnetic propulsion enabling energy-efficient travel by recycling deceleration energy back into the system. The Planetran design further considered under-ocean tunnels to connect continents, leveraging advanced tunneling methods like laser boring for feasibility. During the , key progress in technology provided a foundation for vactrain integration, though full-scale implementations remained theoretical. Japan's Yamanashi Maglev Test Line achieved manned speeds of 531 km/h in 1997 using superconducting , demonstrating stable high-speed levitation and propulsion essential for low-pressure environments. Similarly, Germany's system reached 436 km/h in tests during the early at the facility, validating for potential partial- applications. These prototypes, while operated in atmospheric conditions, highlighted the viability of speeds over 500 km/h but fell short of complete vactrain scale due to untested integration. Significant challenges, including high energy demands for maintaining vacuum levels and ensuring airtight tube sealing over long distances, impeded practical development throughout the century. RAND analyses noted that while operational costs could be low—under $1 per passenger for coast-to-coast trips—the initial for vacuum pumps and seals posed substantial technical and economic barriers. Progress stalled until improvements in digital control systems for precise pressure management emerged in later decades, enabling renewed interest.

21st Century Initiatives

The resurgence of vactrain concepts in the 21st century gained significant momentum in 2013 with the publication of Elon Musk's "Hyperloop Alpha" whitepaper, which outlined a system of passenger pods traveling in low-pressure vacuum tubes at speeds up to 1,200 km/h, powered by solar energy and open-sourced to encourage global innovation. This document, released by SpaceX and Tesla, proposed a 600 km route between Los Angeles and San Francisco as a proof-of-concept, emphasizing reduced air resistance through partial vacuum conditions to achieve high efficiency and low energy use. Building on this foundation, private companies emerged to advance vactrain development, with (HTT) launching in 2013 through a platform and officially incorporating in 2014, raising significant funding via and equity models to fund research and prototypes. Similarly, —later rebranded as Virgin Hyperloop after a 2017 investment by the —was founded in 2014 and secured hundreds of millions in venture funding by 2015 to pursue commercial systems. These initiatives marked a shift toward collaborative, privately driven innovation, contrasting earlier theoretical efforts by leveraging digital platforms for global talent and capital. Government bodies in the and began evaluating vactrain feasibility during the 2010s, with the Department of Transportation commissioning a 2017 commercial analysis that assessed costs, safety, and environmental impacts, concluding potential viability for select routes despite high initial investments. In , the Agency for Railways published a 2022 study exploring integration into existing transport networks, highlighting regulatory gaps but affirming technical promise for sustainable high-speed travel. Complementing these efforts, hosted annual Pod Competitions from 2015 to 2019, culminating in 2019 with student prototypes achieving speeds of 463 km/h on a 1.25 km test track in , validating key engineering principles. Key milestones included Virgin Hyperloop's 2020 passenger test in , where two executives rode a pod at 172 km/h in a —the first human trial of the technology—demonstrating safety and comfort after over 400 unmanned runs. Virgin Hyperloop ceased operations in December 2023. By 2022, the focus shifted toward regulation, with the announcing plans for a dedicated framework to address certification and interoperability, while HTT collaborated with SÜD to release the first safety guidelines for system design and operation.

Technology

Vacuum and Tube Systems

Vactrain systems rely on maintaining a partial within transport tubes to minimize aerodynamic drag, enabling high-speed travel with substantially reduced requirements compared to atmospheric rail systems. Typical target vacuum levels range from 100 to 1,000 Pa, corresponding to 0.1–1% of standard (101,325 Pa), which is sufficient to lower air resistance while balancing pumping costs and structural demands. Achieving and sustaining these pressures involves multi-stage evacuation processes: initial roughing pumps reduce pressure from atmospheric levels to around 1,000 Pa, followed by high-vacuum pumps such as or turbo-molecular types to reach the operational range, with pumping speeds exceeding 10 m³/s per kilometer to handle and leaks. Tube structures are engineered for airtight integrity and durability, typically consisting of straight segments made from (8–25 thick) or lined with a 1–2 layer to prevent permeation, with inner diameters of 2–4 m to accommodate vehicles while optimizing volume for evacuation. These tubes can be buried underground for stability or elevated on pylons spaced 30 m apart, prefabricated in sections and welded or sealed at joints to ensure minimal leakage rates. At stations, airtight gates isolate sections, allowing passenger boarding without full repressurization of the entire tube network. Pumping infrastructure is distributed along the route, with pumps or equivalent systems placed every 1–2 km to counteract gradual pressure rises from leaks, and isolation gates every 5–10 km to segment the tube for localized or isolation. for steady-state vacuum varies with tube and permeability but is estimated at approximately 10–50 kW per km for a 3–4 m or polymer-lined tube, primarily to compress and expel leaked air at rates supporting 100–500 Pa pressures. This power draw represents a small fraction of overall system energy, often offset by renewable sources, though initial pump-down of long tubes requires higher transient loads over hours to days. Leak management employs real-time monitoring with gauges positioned every 20–100 m per tube section to detect anomalies, coupled with automated valves and redundant pumping stations to restore without system-wide . Ultrasonic or differential sensors provide non-invasive detection of breaches, triggering localized isolation gates to contain depressurization to affected segments, ensuring operational and continuity. in pump arrays and sealing materials, such as corrosion-resistant polymers, further mitigates risks from or mechanical damage, maintaining stability over extended operations. As of 2025, advancements in pumping technology include more efficient turbo-molecular pumps integrated in systems for better handling.

Levitation and Propulsion Mechanisms

Vactrains employ () technologies to suspend pods without physical contact, enabling smooth operation at high velocities. Two primary systems are utilized: (EDS) and (EMS). EDS, which relies on superconducting magnets aboard the pod to generate repulsive forces against conductive elements in the tube, provides inherent stability at high speeds due to its reliance on induced eddy currents for levitation. This approach is particularly suited for vactrain applications targeting speeds exceeding 600 km/h, as demonstrated in prototypes like the superconducting system. In contrast, EMS uses attractive forces from electromagnets on the pod to a ferromagnetic rail, offering effective levitation at lower speeds but requiring active feedback control to maintain gap stability. initiatives, such as those by Virgin , have transitioned from EDS to EMS for optimized performance in near-vacuum environments. Propulsion in vactrains is achieved through linear synchronous motors (LSM), where stator coils embedded along the tube walls create a traveling that interacts with magnets on the pod to produce . This stator-based design allows for distributed along the entire route, enabling efficient without onboard motors. The force FF in an LSM can be approximated by F≈BILF \approx B I L, where BB is the strength, II is the current in the stator coils, and LL is the effective length of the interacting conductors. This configuration supports precise control of pod motion, with the vacuum environment minimizing aerodynamic drag to facilitate sustained high speeds. Speed control in vactrain systems incorporates variable frequency drives (VFDs) to modulate the frequency and amplitude of the currents, ensuring synchronized operation and maintaining pod headways of 1–5 minutes for high throughput. These drives enable dynamic adjustment of the traveling wave speed in the LSM, allowing for acceleration, cruising, and deceleration while optimizing energy use. further enhances efficiency by converting back into electrical power during deceleration, recovering up to 90% of braking energy through the LSM's reversible operation. Vactrain pods are engineered as lightweight capsules, typically constructed from aluminum frames reinforced with composite materials like carbon fiber to minimize mass while ensuring structural integrity under high-speed stresses. Designed to carry 20–40 s, these aerodynamic pods prioritize comfort and features within a compact form factor. Onboard batteries provide auxiliary power for emergencies and non-propulsion systems, such as and controls, independent of the tube's main electrical infrastructure.

Safety and Control Systems

Vactrain safety and control systems are designed to address the unique challenges of operating in low-pressure, high-speed sealed environments, incorporating advanced and to prevent failures and ensure protection. Monitoring relies on distributed networks, including transducers to detect variations in tube levels and distance sensors for real-time pod alignment and positioning relative to the guideway. These systems integrate with AI-driven that analyze data to forecast issues such as tube leaks or component degradation, enabling proactive interventions before faults escalate. Emergency protocols emphasize rapid response and to mitigate risks in confined tubes. Pods feature onboard power and environmental controls, including oxygen supplies, to handle depressurization events, while tube segments can be isolated and repressurized to atmospheric levels within 60-90 seconds for safe evacuation through access points spaced approximately every 500 meters or via specialized . Crash avoidance is achieved through automated control systems maintaining safe headways equivalent to emergency braking distances, with linear induction motors enabling deceleration up to 0.8g and secondary passive catch mechanisms to support pods during failures. Regulatory standards for vactrains require novel frameworks beyond traditional rail or aviation certifications, given speeds exceeding 1,000 km/h and autonomous operations. The U.S. (FRA) applies performance-based rules under 49 U.S.C. 20102(2) for electromagnetic systems, but experts recommend tailored certifications like those from the European CEN/CLC/JTC20 committee, addressing tube integrity, low-pressure hazards, and high-speed dynamics. Cybersecurity protocols draw from ISO/IEC 27000 and standards to secure remote command-and-control networks against threats to propulsion or vacuum maintenance, with ongoing development to fill gaps in hyperloop-specific vulnerabilities. Human factors in vactrain design prioritize physiological and psychological well-being under extreme conditions. Lateral accelerations are limited to below 0.1g to minimize discomfort during curves, while maximum deceleration is capped at 0.5g for tolerable stopping. Noise and vibration are mitigated through secondary suspension systems and the inherent of low-pressure environments, though challenges persist from air compression effects at high speeds. Enclosed pods address psychological comfort by incorporating environmental controls and interfaces to reduce and risks associated with windowless travel.

Major Projects

Hyperloop Concepts and Companies

The concept, as initially proposed by in his 2013 white paper titled "Hyperloop Alpha," envisions a high-speed transportation system utilizing near-vacuum tubes to minimize air resistance, enabling passenger pods to travel at speeds up to 760 mph (1,220 km/h). The design specifies pods accommodating 28 passengers each, traveling the 350-mile (560 km) route between and in approximately 35 minutes, with an estimated construction cost of $6 billion for a passenger-only system. This proposal emphasized for pod propulsion and suspension, along with solar panels mounted on the tube to offset energy needs, aiming to create an efficient, low-friction alternative to conventional rail or air travel. Inspired by Musk's open-source , several private companies emerged to develop technologies, focusing on pod designs, systems, and route feasibility. Virgin Hyperloop, formerly known as , became a prominent player after rebranding in 2017 through a partnership with the ; it conducted the world's first human passenger trial in November 2020 on a 500-meter in , where two company employees reached 107 mph (172 km/h) in a sealed pod equipped with and independent life-support systems to maintain internal pressure separate from the low- tube environment. The company raised over $450 million in funding but ceased operations in December 2023, with its intellectual property transferred to logistics firm , which had been a key investor since 2016 and co-developed cargo-focused variants. Hyperloop Transportation Technologies (HTT), founded in 2013 as a crowdsourced of engineers and academics, advanced conceptual designs featuring modular, sealed pods with onboard management and inductive , while proposing solar-integrated tubes to achieve neutrality. HTT secured partnerships for route planning, including a proposed 10-kilometer in India's region and feasibility assessments for Midwestern U.S. corridors connecting cities like and , emphasizing reduced land acquisition needs compared to traditional infrastructure. By 2024, HTT completed low-pressure environment tests at its Toulouse, , R&D facility, validating pod levitation and control systems up to subscale speeds. Key milestones in the Hyperloop ecosystem include the SpaceX-sponsored Hyperloop Pod Competitions from 2015 to 2019, which engaged over 50 university teams annually to prototype pods on a 1-mile in , achieving speeds up to 288 mph (463 km/h) by the 2019 event and fostering innovations in and . Between 2022 and 2024, multiple feasibility studies emerged in and , such as HTT's bid for an Italian prototype and broader assessments by the European Hyperloop Development Program, evaluating economic viability and integration with existing transport networks without delving into full-scale deployment. These efforts highlighted conceptual designs like independently sealed pods to ensure passenger in partial vacuums, alongside proposals for elevated, solar-powered tubes to minimize environmental impact. In November 2025, the released a study assessing hyperloop progress, indicating readiness to advance from prototyping to demonstration phases.

Chinese Vactrain Programs

China's vactrain programs are primarily driven by state-owned enterprises, with the Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC) leading research efforts since 2017. CASIC's "T-Flight" project focuses on integrating superconducting technology within low-vacuum tubes to achieve ultra-high speeds. In February 2024, the prototype reached 623 km/h (387 mph) during tests in a 2 km low-vacuum tube in , Province, demonstrating stable suspension, navigation, and deceleration. An additional test in August 2024 validated key technologies, including vacuum maintenance and electromagnetic propulsion, with the system designed for operational speeds up to 1,000 km/h. Phase two of the project, targeting full 1,000 km/h capabilities, remains ongoing as of November 2025, with tests such as a June 2025 capsule acceleration to 650 km/h on a 1 km track indicating continued progress. Complementing CASIC's work, the China Railway Rolling Stock Corporation (CRRC) has advanced vactrain-related initiatives by integrating vacuum tube concepts with China's existing infrastructure. This effort leverages CRRC's expertise in systems, such as the Shanghai Maglev, to enhance national rail networks by reducing air resistance through integration. Key testing facilities for these programs are centered in , , where a pioneering low- tube test line was completed in November 2023. The initial 2 km segment supports comprehensive trials of sealing, stability, and high-speed dynamics, with plans to expand to a 60 km full-scale line in three phases for more extensive evaluations. This infrastructure draws brief inspiration from global concepts but emphasizes state-led engineering tailored to China's rail ecosystem. Long-term applications include a proposed Beijing-Shanghai route, aiming for operational speeds over 1,000 km/h by 2030 to cut travel times between these economic hubs to under one hour. These programs align with broader national goals of enhancing connectivity across China's vast territory, facilitating faster intercity transport to support . State enterprises like CASIC and fund the initiatives through government-backed investments, contributing to China's expansive rail modernization efforts that exceeded 1.2 trillion yuan (approximately $167 billion) in transportation spending in the first five months of 2025. Additionally, the technology is positioned for export to partner countries, promoting cooperation and standards in Asia and beyond.

European and Other Global Efforts

In , efforts to advance have centered on collaborative test facilities and startup-led prototypes, supported by research funding. The European Hyperloop Center in Veendam, , opened in March as the continent's longest dedicated test track, spanning 420 meters with a 2.5-meter diameter tube maintained at 100 Pa to simulate low-drag conditions. This facility enables companies and researchers to validate subsystems, including , , and passenger interfaces, with initial vehicle tests achieving speeds up to 100 km/h on straight sections by late . Dutch startup Hardt Hyperloop has been a key player, conducting the center's first full-scale vehicle test in September 2025, where a pod demonstrated lane-switching and reached 85 km/h in a partial vacuum. Earlier that year, Hardt showcased a cargo dock prototype for efficient loading and unloading of pallets and containers, highlighting potential freight applications of vactrain systems. In , Zeleros completed construction of a 110-meter dynamic in Sagunto in 2023 and ran initial tests using a switched reluctance , with plans for expanded validation in 2024 focusing on electromagnetic launching. The has bolstered these initiatives through programs, allocating funds for standardization and industrialization. For instance, the roadmap project received €3.6 million to assess deployment risks and economic feasibility across potential European lines. Additional subsidies, such as €3 million from regional funds in 2024, supported the European Hyperloop Center's operations, fostering cross-border collaborations among 13 countries. A 2025 study further evaluated prospects, emphasizing technical harmonization for demonstration projects. Beyond Europe, vactrain concepts have sparked international proposals and preliminary agreements. In February 2018, India's Maharashtra government signed a memorandum of understanding with Virgin Hyperloop One to conduct feasibility studies for a 600 km/h passenger line between Mumbai and Pune, aiming to reduce travel time from three hours to 25 minutes and generate $5.5 billion in socioeconomic benefits over 30 years. Speculative global designs from the envisioned vactrain infrastructure for long-distance connectivity. Proposals for a linking New York and , dating to conceptual discussions in the early , gained traction with a 2019 scale-model test by the Maritime Research Institute Netherlands, simulating vacuum-tube stability and propulsion for sub-hour crossings at speeds over 5,000 km/h. In , proposed vacuum-tube routes connecting major cities like and in the late , estimating costs up to $40 billion for systems reaching 1,100 km/h to enhance intercity freight and passenger links. South Korea initiated a hypertube () program in April 2025 through a government task force, investing 12.7 billion won ($8.8 million) to develop electromagnetic and high-speed controls, aiming for global leadership despite a late start.

Advantages and Challenges

Potential Benefits

Vactrains, by operating in near-vacuum environments, promise dramatic improvements in speed and efficiency over conventional rail and . Theoretical models project travel times reduced by 5 to 10 times compared to airplanes or for intercity routes, such as completing the to journey in approximately 35 minutes versus several hours by air including airport procedures. This efficiency stems from the elimination of aerodynamic drag and weather disruptions, enabling average speeds exceeding 1,000 km/h with minimal loss. consumption is projected to be 2 to 4 times less than that of short-haul flights due to low-friction and in a low-pressure tube, potentially powered entirely by from renewable sources. Environmentally, vactrains offer significant advantages through fully electric operation, resulting in zero direct emissions during travel and a substantial reduction in overall output compared to or fossil-fuel-dependent rail. Integration with solar panels along the tube infrastructure could further minimize reliance on the , enabling self-sustaining production and even excess power generation for local use. Life-cycle assessments indicate potential cuts in particulate matter and smog-forming emissions by shifting passengers from air and , enhancing air quality in high-density corridors. Economically, the deployment of vactrain networks is expected to stimulate job creation in , and technology sectors during build-out phases, while long-term operations could lower costs per passenger-kilometer through reduced maintenance from frictionless systems. Systems could handle up to 1,000 passengers per hour per tube, alleviating congestion on existing highways and runways by diverting high-volume . These efficiencies may boost regional productivity by enabling seamless freight and passenger flows, with theoretical projections estimating billions in annual economic activity from faster connectivity. On a societal level, vactrains could decongest urban areas by providing rapid links between megacities, reducing the need for expansive airport infrastructure and fostering integrated city clusters without the spatial demands of traditional aviation hubs. This enhanced accessibility might promote equitable mobility, allowing commuters to access distant opportunities while minimizing travel-related stress and time losses.

Technical and Economic Obstacles

One of the primary technical barriers to vactrain deployment is the high upfront cost of achieving and maintaining vacuum sealing in long tubes, which requires and continuous monitoring to prevent leaks that could compromise the low-pressure environment essential for high speeds. Additionally, ensuring and resilience poses significant challenges for extended tube networks, as the structures must withstand seismic accelerations and ground movements without structural failure or vacuum breaches, particularly in seismically active regions. Thermal expansion management further complicates , as temperature fluctuations cause the tubes to expand and contract, potentially leading to or alignment issues over hundreds of kilometers unless mitigated by specialized joints or materials. Economically, vactrain systems face steep construction costs estimated at $20–50 million per kilometer, similar to or higher than many conventional projects. remains uncertain, with potentially long payback periods of decades contingent on high ridership and fares that may deter widespread adoption compared to established rail networks. Regulatory hurdles exacerbate these issues, including the lack of proven standards for vacuum tube operations, which must address risks like decompression events and evacuations in untested environments. Land acquisition for straight, unobstructed routes also presents challenges, as securing extensive rights-of-way often involves navigating environmental protections, property disputes, and zoning restrictions. Other obstacles include operational noise generated by vacuum pumps required to sustain the low-pressure conditions, which could impact nearby communities despite mitigation efforts. Right-of-way conflicts arise from the need for dedicated corridors that minimize curves for efficiency, often clashing with existing and urban development. Furthermore, vactrains' reliance on rare-earth magnets for propulsion exposes them to vulnerabilities, particularly due to China's dominance in production and recent export restrictions that have disrupted global availability. As of November 2025, while some export rules have been eased following international agreements, supply disruptions and shortages persist.

Current Status and Future Outlook

Developments Up to 2025

In 2024, China's Aerospace Science and Industrial Corporation (CASIC) conducted a groundbreaking test of its T-Flight vacuum train prototype in a 2 km low-vacuum tube located in , Province, achieving stable , controlled navigation through curves, and safe emergency stopping for a system engineered to operate at speeds up to 1,000 km/h. This marked the first full-scale demonstration of vacuum-assisted technology in , with plans for an extended 60 km track to validate top speeds in subsequent phases. Building on this momentum, Corporation Limited advanced its high-speed efforts in 2025, with an experimental prototype accelerating to 650 km/h over a 600-meter track in just seven seconds, incorporating electromagnetic propulsion. In , the European Hyperloop Center (EHC) in Veendam, , opened in September 2024, enabling Hardt Hyperloop to perform its inaugural full pod launch in a 420-meter , reaching initial speeds of 30 km/h with and a lane-switching maneuver at up to 100 km/h capability. By mid-2025, Hardt Hyperloop intensified efforts toward passenger certification, conducting advanced tests that achieved a European record of 53 mph (approximately 85 km/h) with zero in the system, while targeting crewed operations by 2030 under regulatory frameworks like the EU's TEN-T . In the United States and globally, Virgin Hyperloop (rebranded as ) shut down in late 2023 after raising $450 million without securing operational contracts. Meanwhile, (HTT) progressed its , , test facility, which became operational for scaled prototyping by mid-2025 following years of development since 2017. These efforts were supported by ongoing international collaborations in the sector. In November 2025, completed a demonstration test of a superconducting vehicle reaching 1,000 km/h in a 2-km low-vacuum tube. Also in November 2025, a study highlighted that technology is ready to progress from the prototype phase to demonstration projects.

Prospects and Criticisms

Proponents of vactrain technology foresee commercial deployment by 2035, with China's planned Shanghai-Hangzhou line exemplifying this timeline as a 150 km vacuum-tube network capable of 1,000 km/h speeds. Market forecasts bolster this optimism, projecting the global sector—encompassing vactrain systems—to expand from approximately $3.8 billion in 2025 to $83.6 billion by 2035, driven by demand for efficient, in densely populated regions. Critics, however, highlight a 200-year pattern of overpromising, tracing back to 19th-century experiments and unfulfilled 1970s proposals like RAND Corporation's visionary but unrealized transcontinental vactrain concept. High-profile recent setbacks, including the 2023 shutdown of after raising $450 million without securing operational contracts, underscore ongoing hype exceeding practical delivery. Fundamental physics constraints, such as sonic booms generated by pressure waves in low-vacuum tubes at near-sonic speeds, further complicate viability, as evidenced by scaled tunnel experiments showing severe acoustic impacts even at 150 km/h. Advocates of alternatives like conventional argue these systems provide reliable, cost-effective connectivity without vactrain's exotic infrastructure demands. Expert analyses in 2025, including assessments from bodies, cast doubt on vactrain's economic feasibility outside ultra-dense corridors, citing prohibitive upfront costs that could exceed those of for sparse routes. Environmental critiques emphasize the tube production footprint, with manufacturing vast structures for enclosure projected to impose significant resource strain and emissions during construction. Emerging pathways emphasize hybrid maglev-vactrain designs to balance speed and practicality, as seen in China's T-Flight prototype achieving 623 km/h in partial vacuum during 2024 tests. International R&D collaborations, including initiatives under the TEN-T framework, target substantial cost reductions—potentially halving infrastructure expenses through shared innovations—by 2030 to enhance broader adoption.

References

  1. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/13/21/5737
  2. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20120601-high-speed-pipedreams
  3. https://ctrf.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/CTRF2016NarayanRailTransport.pdf
  4. https://digital.wpi.edu/concern/student_works/44558d66k?locale=en
  5. https://futurism.com/the-byte/china-maglev-vactrain-hyperloop
  6. https://newatlas.com/transport/tflight-chinese-maglev-train-test-successful/
  7. https://digital.wpi.edu/downloads/9880vr26p
  8. https://www.seattletimes.com/life/lifestyle/how-vactrains-work/
  9. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/10/4/1379
  10. http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2014/ph240/burkhard2/
  11. https://greentransportation.info/rail/concepts/vactrain.html
  12. https://www.tesla.com/sites/default/files/blog_images/hyperloop-alpha.pdf
  13. https://www.ferrovial.com/en-us/innovation/technologies/hyperloop/
  14. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20170001624/downloads/20170001624.pdf
  15. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/pneumatics.html
  16. https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/the-hyperloop-a-200-year-history-of-hype-and-failure/
  17. https://ethw.org/Atmospheric_Railway
  18. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/when-a-labyrinth-of-pneumatic-tubes-shuttled-mail-beneath-the-streets-of-new-york-city-180983472/
  19. https://patents.google.com/patent/US2511979A/en
  20. https://www.thedrive.com/news/nyc-to-la-in-21-minutes-inside-rands-wild-1970s-proposal-for-a-14000-mph-vacuum-train
  21. https://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P4874.html
  22. https://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P6092.html
  23. https://web-japan.org/atlas/technology/tec04.html
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3111983_Review_of_Maglev_train_technologies
  25. https://pitchbook.com/profiles/company/149120-83
  26. https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/virgin-hyperloop
  27. https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/12308/dot_12308_DS1.pdf
  28. https://www.sciencealert.com/the-winner-of-elon-musk-s-hyperloop-pod-competition-just-hit-an-astonishing-speed-record-290-miles-an-hour
  29. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-a-europe-fit-for-the-digital-age/file-eu-regulatory-framework-for-hyperloop
  30. https://www.hyperlooptt.com/2022/hyperloop-transportation-technologies-and-tuv-sud-release-free-download-of-safety-guidelines/
  31. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1875389212010450
  32. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0026625
  33. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02907-7
  34. https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/high-speed/crrc-unveils-600km-h-superconducting-maglev-prototype/
  35. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/16/7/2995
  36. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210539522000451
  37. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9903641/
  38. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/12/24/4611
  39. https://www.naturalspublishing.com/files/published/y762jsu29x3z4a.pdf
  40. https://journals.eco-vector.com/transsyst/article/view/10839
  41. https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/FTA_Research_Report_No._0026.pdf
  42. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2021/02/f82/Effect%2520of%2520Hyperloop%2520Technologies%2520on%2520the%2520Electric%2520Grid%2520and%2520Transportation%2520Energy%2520-%2520Jan%25202021.pdf
  43. https://www.compositesworld.com/articles/into-the-hyperloop
  44. https://www.era.europa.eu/system/files/2022-10/Hyperloop%2520an%2520Innovation%2520for%2520Global%2520Transportation.pdf
  45. https://www.baumer.com/int/en/hyperloop-baumer-sensors-in-a-visionary-project/n/News_Swissloop
  46. https://www.althensensors.com/projects/pressure-sensors-for-the-delft-hyperloop-braking-system/
  47. https://docs.hardt.global/what-is-hyperloop/hyperloop-system-description
  48. https://www.meegle.com/en_us/topics/hyperloop-technology/hyperloop-passenger-safety
  49. https://www.trl.co.uk/uploads/trl/documents/ACA003-Hyperloop.pdf
  50. https://hyperloopconnected.org/2020/06/evacuating-the-hyperloop/
  51. https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/2021-01/NETT%2520Council%2520Hyperloop%2520Standards%2520Desk%2520Review_14Jan2021_final.pdf
  52. https://arxiv.org/html/2209.03095v3
  53. https://www.theverge.com/2013/8/12/4614940/elon-musk-reveals-plans-for-high-speed-hyperloop
  54. https://www.theverge.com/2020/11/8/21553014/virgin-hyperloop-first-human-test-speed-pod-tube
  55. https://fortune.com/2023/12/21/hyperloop-one-shut-down-richard-branson-dp-world-transportation/
  56. https://www.hyperlooptt.com/
  57. https://www.hyperlooptt.com/projects/rd-center/
  58. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jun/16/spacex-hyperloop-pod-race-competition-elon-musk
  59. https://www.freightwaves.com/news/hyperloop-test-pod-breaks-speed-record-and-wins-the-annual-hyperloop-pod-competition
  60. https://www.hyperloopdevelopmentprogram.com/s/HDP-Reporting-2024-H2.pdf
  61. https://transport.ec.europa.eu/news-events/news/new-eu-study-assesses-progress-and-prospects-hyperloop-technology-2025-11-12_en
  62. http://www.goshanxi.com.cn/2023-12/08/c_945961.htm
  63. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3273825/china-tests-high-speed-hyperloop-flying-train-2km-vacuum-tube
  64. https://www.linkedin.com/posts/rollingstockworld_china-accelerates-maglev-capsule-to-650-km-activity-7343533470234624001-RyJm
  65. https://rollingstockworld.com/passenger-cars/china-on-the-way-to-its-dream-of-high-speed-maglev/
  66. http://shanxi.chinadaily.com.cn/2023-11/22/c_941179.htm
  67. https://www.newsweek.com/china-tests-train-that-could-fastest-world-1936024
  68. https://www.yicaiglobal.com/news/china-spends-usd167-billion-on-transport-infrastructure-in-first-five-months
  69. https://chinapower.csis.org/china-belt-and-road-initiative/
  70. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2024/mar/27/opening-europe-longest-hyperloop-track-reignites-future-of-transport-hype
  71. https://www.hyperloopcenter.eu/test-center
  72. https://www.silicon.co.uk/e-innovation/research/successful-hyperloop-test-completed-in-holland-579299
  73. https://techxplore.com/news/2025-09-europe-hyperloop-dutch-trial.html
  74. https://www.hardt.global/press/hardt-hyperloop-announces-the-successful-completion-of-the-cargo-dock
  75. https://magazine.mafex.es/en/zeleros-completes-test-track-in-sagunto-and-runs-first-successful-tests/
  76. https://www.hyperloopcenter.eu/news-items/european-hyperloop-center-receives-official-approval-to-3-meur-subsidy-from-rep-snn
  77. https://qz.com/india/1210414/hyperloops-unreal-promise-mumbai-to-pune-in-25-minutes
  78. https://safety4sea.com/watch-researchers-test-transatlantic-underwater-hyperloop-tunnel/
  79. https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/business/tech-science/20250505/korea-aims-for-global-leadership-in-hyperloop-technology-despite-late-start
  80. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sustainable-cities/articles/10.3389/frsc.2022.842245/full
  81. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S266691612400015X
  82. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7099/13/3/65
  83. https://leonard.vinci.com/en/hyperloops-speed-but-at-what-cost/
  84. https://www.arup.com/globalassets/downloads/insights/s/hyperloop-report-arup.pdf
  85. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/hyperloop-and-high-speed-trains/
  86. https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/auto-companies-in-full-panic-over-rare-earths-bottleneck-2025-06-09/
  87. https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/china-starts-work-easing-rare-earth-export-rules-short-trump-hopes-sources-say-2025-11-07/
  88. https://news.cgtn.com/news/2025-06-18/China-breaks-record-with-maglev-train-hitting-650-km-h-in-7-seconds-1EiKPFJGJH2/p.html
  89. https://rollingstockworld.com/components/china-accelerates-maglev-bogie-to-650-km-h-during-tests/
  90. https://www.railtech.com/all/2025/09/12/hyperloop-tests-with-passengers-realistic-by-2030-hardt-director-on-breakthroughs-and-scepticism/
  91. https://interestingengineering.com/transportation/hyperloop-capsule-shatters-speed-record
  92. https://www.htfmarketintelligence.com/report/global-hyperloop-logistics-solutions-market
  93. https://www.borntoengineer.com/hyperloop-engineering-reality-check-2025
  94. https://www.tbsnews.net/worldbiz/china/chinas-1000-kmh-maglev-train-completes-demonstration-test-916471
  95. https://www.railwaypro.com/wp/hyperloop-ready-to-progress-from-prototype-to-demonstration-ec-study-says/
  96. https://worldecomag.com/china-plans-shanghai-hangzhou-hyperloop-train-by-2035/
  97. https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/hyperloop-train-market
  98. https://www.borntoengineer.com/hyperloop-technologies-shuts-down-after-failing-to-achieve-commercial-viability
  99. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022460X00934825
  100. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/how-long-hyperloop
  101. https://metinvestholding.com/en/media/article/staljnaya-truba-hyperloop
  102. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/64e74196d472e811c33e6a78/t/689e2aa335921758f6e7200d/1755196067993/Hyperloop%2BDevelopment%2BReport%2BJul%2B2025.pdf
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.