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Sankethi language
View on Wikipedia | This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2008) |
| Sankethi | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Karnataka |
Dravidian
| |
Early forms | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | – |
| Glottolog | sank1249 |
Sankethi (IPA: [sɐŋkeːt̪i], sometimes spelled Sanketi) is a South Dravidian language that is closely related to Kannada. It is sometimes considered a dialect of Kannada or Tamil, but there are considerable differences that make each language unintelligible to speakers of the other language.[citation needed] It has strong lexical influences from Kannada (particularly in the colloquial form), as well as borrowings from Sanskrit.[1][2] It is most commonly spoken in Karnataka, India by the Sankethi people, who migrated from Sengottai in Tamil Nadu.
The language is most often written in the Kannada script. However, Sankethi (especially in the spoken form) has relatively higher frequencies of consonant clusters of more than two consonants and semivowels. This makes it difficult to write in the Kannada script, which would require multiple subscripted letters (ಒತ್ತಕ್ಷರ - ottakṣara). As a result, Sankethi is rarely found in printed or any written form, and has no standardized form.
Three main dialects exist of the Sankethi language: Kaushika, Bettadpura and Lingadahalli, each associated with the three primary Sankethi communities located in Karnataka. These dialects are all located in a sprachbund which includes not only Kannada but also Tulu, due to Sankethi villages being located in the Malnad region. As Sankethi has no standardized form, it can be difficult to assess what the "true" grammar and features of Sankethi is, as evidenced in the literature by H.S. Ananthanaryana and Kikkeri Narayana. The grammar and semantic features of Kannada are those most often assimilated into Sankethi, as many Sankethis are bilingual in Kannada.
Phonology
[edit]Sankethi phonology is very similar to Kannada and Tamil, with the classical Sanskrit aspirates and retroflex laterals characteristic of many Dravidian languages. Like a few other South Indian languages including Konkani, Marathi, and Saurashtra, the language has a few uncommon aspirates: [ʋʰ], [nʰ], and [ʃʰ], though both most often appear in their palatalized forms. Its presence is often marked by the presence of long vowels, as well as syllable finally (where they are often palatalized in that position). See the table below for the range of Sankethi consonants.
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | plain | m ಮ ⟨m⟩ | n̪ ನ ⟨n⟩ | ɳ ಣ ⟨ṇ⟩ | ɲ ಞ ⟨ñ⟩ | ŋ ಙ ⟨ṅ⟩ | ||||||||
| aspirated | n̪ʰ ನ್ಹ ⟨nʰ⟩ | |||||||||||||
| Stop | plain | p ಪ ⟨p⟩ | b ಬ ⟨b⟩ | t̪ ತ ⟨t⟩ | d̪ ದ ⟨d⟩ | ʈ ಟ ⟨ṭ⟩ | ɖ ಡ ⟨ḍ⟩ | t͡ʃ ಚ ⟨c⟩ | d͡ʒ ಜ ⟨j⟩ | k ಕ ⟨k⟩ | ɡ ಗ ⟨g⟩ | |||
| aspirated | pʰ ಫ ⟨ph⟩ | bʱ ಭ ⟨bh⟩ | t̪ʰ ಥ ⟨th⟩ | d̪ʱ ಧ ⟨dh⟩ | ʈʰ ಠ ⟨ṭh⟩ | ɖʱ ಢ ⟨ḍh⟩ | t͡ʃʰ ಛ ⟨ch⟩ | d͡ʒʱ ಝ ⟨jh⟩ | kʰ ಖ ⟨kh⟩ | ɡʱ ಘ ⟨gh⟩ | ||||
| Fricative | s̪ ಸ ⟨s⟩ | ʂ ಷ ⟨ṣ⟩ | ʃ ಶ ⟨ś⟩ | h ಹ ⟨h⟩ | ||||||||||
| aspirated | ʃʰ ಶ್ಹ ⟨śh⟩ | |||||||||||||
| Approximant | central | ʋ ವ ⟨v⟩ | j ಯ ⟨y⟩ | |||||||||||
| aspirated | ʋʰ ವ್ಹ ⟨vh⟩ | |||||||||||||
| lateral | l ಲ ⟨l⟩ | ɭ ಳ ⟨ḷ⟩ | ||||||||||||
| Rhotic | r ರ ⟨r⟩ | |||||||||||||
Sankethi vowels are very similar to Tamil and Kannada vowels:
| Vowel | ISO 15919 | IPA |
|---|---|---|
| ಅ | a | [ʌ] |
| ಆ | ā | [ɑː] |
| ಇ | i | [i] |
| ಈ | ī | [iː] |
| ಉ | u | [u], [ɯ] |
| ಊ | ū | [uː] |
| ಎ | e | [e] |
| ಏ | ē | [eː] |
| ಐ | ai | [ʌj] |
| ಒ | o | [o] |
| ಓ | ō | [oː] |
| ಔ | au | [ʌʋ] |
In Sankethi, some nouns that end in ಒ (o) have a final nasal sound, which is not indicated with the anusvāra when written down. This is especially prevalent in the Lingadahalli dialect.
Vocabulary
[edit]Below is a table comparing some basic words in Sankethi, Kannada, Tamil and Thigala.
| Sankethi | Kannada | Tamil | Thigala | English |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ಪಲ್ಯು/ತಾಳ್ದು (palyu/tāḷdu) | ಪಲ್ಯ (palya) | பொரியல் (poriyal) | ಪಲ್ಯು (palyu) | sauteed/fried vegetable dish |
| ಚಾರು (cāru) | ಸಾರು (sāru) | ரசம் (rasam) | ಸಾರು (sāru) | broth/soup |
| ತಯಿರು (tayiru) | ಮೊಸರು (mosaru) | தயிர் (tayir) | ತಯಿರು (tayiru) | curd / yoghurt |
| ಮೋರು (mōru) | ಮಜ್ಜಿಗೆ (majjige) | மோர் (mōr) | ಮೋರು (mōru) | buttermilk |
| ನೆಲ್ಲ್ (nell) | ಭತ್ತ (bhatta) | நெல் (nel) | ನೆಲ್ಲ್ (nell) | unhusked rice |
| ಅರಶಿ (araśi) | ಅಕ್ಕಿ (akki) | அரிசி (arici) | ಅರಶಿ (araśi) | uncooked rice |
| ಸಾಂ (sāṃ) | ಅನ್ನ(anna) | சாதம்(sādam) | cooked rice | |
| ತೇನು (tēnu) | ಜೇನಿನತುಪ್ಪ (jēnina tuppa) | தேன் (tēn) | ತೇನು (tēnu) | honey |
| ವಣ್ಣ (vaṇṇa) | ಬೆಣ್ಣೆ (beṇṇe) | வெண்ணெய் (veṇṇey) | ವಣ್ (vaṇ) | butter |
| ನೈ (nai) | ತುಪ್ಪ (tuppa) | நெய் (ney) | ghee | |
| ವೆಲ್ಲು (vellu) | ಬೆಲ್ಲ (bella) | வெல்லம் (vellam) | jaggery | |
| ಮಂಜ (mañja) | ಅರಶಿನ (araśina) | மஞ்சள் (maṇjaḷ) | turmeric | |
| ಪರ್ಪು (parpu) | ಬೇಳೆ (bēḷe) | பருப்பு (paruppu) | lentil | |
| ಕಾವೇರಿ (kāvēri) | ನದಿ (nadi) | ஆறு (āṟu), நதி (nati) | river |
Word formation strategies
[edit]One peculiar feature of Sankethi is its use of words and structures of both Sanskrit and Dravidian origin to form new words. A study by H.S. Ananthanarayana details a number of noun formation strategies in Sankethi.[3]
-ಮಯು - "full of" (ex. ಪೂವಮಯು - full of flowers)
Grammar
[edit]Nouns
Sankethi grammar is fairly similar to those of most other Dravidian languages, with six cases: nominative (unmarked), accusative, instrumental-ablative, dative, genitive, and locative. The vocative is not fully functional case, and not all nouns have a separate form for it, and as such is not included in the traditional list. The grammar detailed below pertains to the Kaushika dialect.
As in Tamil and Malayalam, there is clusivity distinction for first person plural pronouns in Sankethi: ನಾಂಗ (nānga; exclusive) VS ನಾಂಬು (nāmbu/ inclusive), though the frequency usage varies. A good example of its usage is the Sankethi endonym for the language: ಎಂಗಡೆ ವಾರ್ಥೆ (eṃgaḍe vārthe), which implies that the language belongs to the speaker and the Sankethi community, so as to distinguish it from a shared language.
Below is a table of pronouns:
| ನಾ - na - I | ನಾಂಗ/ನಾಂಬ - nānga/nāṃba - we (exclusive/inclusive) |
| ನೀ - ni - you | ನೀಂಗ/ತಾಂಗ - nīnga/tānga - (you all/you (polite))/you (very polite) |
| (ಇವು/ಅವು)/(ಇವೆ/ಅವೆ) - (ivu/avu)/(ive/ave) - (proximal/distal) he/she | ಇವ್ಹಾ(ಳು)/ಅವ್ಹ(ಳು)- ivhāḷu/avhāḷu- they (human) |
| ಇದು/ಅದು- idu/adu - this/that (non-human) (it/[this/that]) | ಇವ್ಹ್ಯ/ಅವ್ಹ್ಯ - ivhya/avhya - they (non-human) |
Polite versions of he and she are ಇವ್ಹು/ಅವ್ಹು (ivhu/avhu) and ಇವ್ಹೆ/ಅವ್ಹೆ (ivhe/avhe), which are increasingly considered archaic. They are most frequently replaced by ಇವ್ಹಾ/ಅವ್ಹಾ (ivhā/avhā), perhaps as an influence from Kannada. Tānga is usually found only in religious contexts, and even then, nīnga is often preferred. Tānga and nīnga have the same inflections and verb conjugations. The use of ಇವ್ಹ್ಯ/ಅವ್ಹ್ಯ is rare, since the word was historically used to refer to people outside the Sankethi community. Eventually it acquired a more general, pejorative meaning of “those people (outsiders)”, and as such is rarely used.
Case Declension
The declensional classes are similar to Kannada, marked by animate versus inanimate and weak (ಇ, ಈ, ಎ, ಏ, ಐ) versus strong vowel (ಅ, ಆ, ಉ, ಊ, ಒ, ಓ, ಔ, ಋ) endings. Gender only exists for human nouns, and is only relevant in the third person verb conjugations. Generally, the verb classes are delineated as 1st (animate strong vowel ending), 2nd (inanimate strong vowel ending), 3rd (animate weak vowel ending), and 4th (inanimate weak vowel ending).
Though Sankethi vocabulary is not systematized, there are some general rules for taking nouns from Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, or Malayalam.
- Most words of Dravidian origin in Kannada that end in ಅ (a) in Kannada and Tamil/Malayalam words ending in உ/ന് (the half u), including proper nouns, end in the half ಉ [ɯ] in Sankethi.
- Words of Sanskrit origin (though there are exceptions) tend to end in ಒ (oṃ); a way to tell if this is the case is to see if the Telugu, Tamil, or Malayalam cognate ends in the anusvāra (the ṃ) or the ending -am. If it does, the word will most likely end in the nasalized oṃ, which is usually written with ಒ because there is no way to indicate a nasalized vowel in the Kannada script (as noted before). Ex. Sankethi ಪಳೊ is related to Tamil பழம், which ends in -am. Therefore, ಪಳೊ is pronounced with a final ಒಂ.
- However, as a rule, most words that end in e in Kannada and ai in Tamil end in a in Sankethi (even if the second rule applies; is especially true of Sanskrit loans). Ex. Compare Kannada ಪ್ರಾರ್ಥನೆ (prārthane) and Tamil பிரார்த்தனை (prārthanai), which is ಪ್ರಾರ್ಥನ (prārthana) in Sankethi.
See the table below for case declensions. The nominative is the base form of a given noun, and as such is not included in the table below.
| Case | 1st Class | 2nd Class | 3rd Class | 4th Class |
| Accusative | -ಅ/-ನ್ (singular)
-ಅಂಗಳ (plural) |
-ತ | -ಯ | -ವ |
| Instrumental-Ablative | -ೊಣ್ಣು/- ್ನಣ್ಣು (singular)
-ಂಗಳಣ್ಣು (plural) |
-ತಣ್ಣು | -ಯಣ್ಣು | -ಅಣ್ಣು |
| Dative | -ಂಕ್ಕು(singular)
-ಗಳಕ್ಕು(plural) |
-ತಕ್ಕು | -ಕ್ಕು | -ಅಕ್ಕಾಹ |
| Genitive | -ಂದು/ಂದೆ (singular)
-ಗಡು/ಗಡೆ (plural) |
-ತದು/ತದೆ/ತೆ | -ಂದು/ಂದೆ | -ಅದು/ಅದೆ/ಅತ್ತೆ/ಅತ್ತು |
| Locative | - ್ನಲ್ಲೆ (singular)
-ಂಗಳಲ್ಲೆ (plural) |
-ತಲ್ಲೆ | -(ಯ)ಲ್ಲೆ | -ಅಲ್ಲೆ |
Verbs
Verbs in Sankethi have two kinds of verbs stems. There are verbs that end in ಉ/ಒ (u/o) and ಇ/ಎ (i/e). Generally speaking, they undergo the following changes during conjugation
- -ಉ/ಒ verbs (strong vowel stems) simply drop their final vowel before taking endings
- -ಇ/ಎ verbs (weak vowel stems) add the euphonic ಯ್ (y) before adding the endings. However, in speech, the ಎ is reduced to ಇ, and even then the final vowel disappears, resulting in a palatalized consonant between the stem and ending.
Below are tables that show different tenses, given for the verb ಸಾಪಡು (to eat/drink):
Non-Past Simple
| ನಾ ಸಾಪಡಣಿ - nā sāpaḍaṇi | ಅದು ಸಾಪಡಂದು - adu sāpaḍandu |
| *ನೀ ಸಾಪಡಂಡ್ಯ/ಸಾಪಡಾಂದೆಯ -
nī sapaḍaṇḍya/sāpaḍāṇdeyā (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಸಾಪಡಣೂಂ/ಸಾಪಡಣೊ - nanga sāpaḍaṇūṃ/sāpaḍaṇo |
| ಅವು ಸಾಪಡಣ/ಸಾಪಡಣು - avu sāpaḍaṇa | *ನೀಂಗ ಸಾಪಡಂಢ್ಯೊ/ಸಾಪಡಂಢಿಳ -
nīnga sāpaḍaṇḍhyo/sāpaḍaṇḍhiḷa (statement/question) |
| ಅವೆ ಸಾಪಡಂಡ - ave sāpaḍaṇḍa | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಸಾಪಡಂಡ - avhāḷa sāpaḍaṇḍa |
*In all tenses, the ನೀ form's final -್ಯ (-ya) becomes -ಎಯ (-eya) as a question, and the ನೀಂಗ form changes from -್ಯೊ (-yo) to -ಿಳ (-iḷa) as a question.
Imperfective and Perfective Aspects
The imperfective aspect is marked by taking the gerundial form of a verb (the stem takes the ending -āṇḍu), and then attaching the conjugated form of iru in its auxiliary form (rāṇi, rāṇḍeya, etc.).
| ನಾ ಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಣಿ- nā sāpaḍānḍrāṇi | ಅದು ಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಂದು - adu sāpaḍānḍrāndu |
| ನೀ ಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಂಡ್ಯ - nī sāpaḍāṇḍrānḍya | ನಾಂಗ ಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಣೂಂ- nanga sāpaḍānḍrāṇūṃ |
| ಅವುಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಣು - avu sāpaḍāṇḍrāṇu | ನೀಂಗ ಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಂಢ್ಯೊ- nīnga sāpaḍāṇḍrānḍhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಸಾಪಡಡ್ರಾಂಡ - ave sāpaḍāṇḍrānḍa | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಸಾಪಡಾಂಡ್ರಾಂಡ - avhāḷa sāpaḍāṇḍrānḍa |
This is contrasted with the perfect aspect, where the past participle is placed first instead of the gerundial aspect. In addition, because
| ನಾ ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಣಿ- nā sāpaḍrāṇi | ಅದು ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಂದು - adu sāpaḍrāndu |
| ನೀ ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಂಡ್ಯ - nī sāpaḍrānḍya | ನಾಂಗ ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಣೂಂ- nanga sāpaḍrāṇūṃ |
| ಅವುಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಣು - avu sāpaḍrāṇu | ನೀಂಗ ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಂಢ್ಯೊ- nīnga sāpaḍrānḍhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಂಡ - ave sāpaḍrānḍa | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಸಾಪಡ್ರಾಂಡ - avhāḷa sāpaḍrānḍa |
Past
The past tense in Sankethi is complex due to a number of stem rules inherited from Tamil.[4] The past tense is also notable in that the ನೀಂಗ (nīnga) form is where Sankethi's uncommon aspirates are most visible. There a number of different kinds of past tense endings associated with certain verb endings. There are also a number of irregular verbs, with no necessarily discernible pattern.
ಪಣ್ಣು - -ಉ ending verbs
| ನಾ ಪಣ್ಣಿನೆ - nā paṇṇine | ಅದು ಪಣ್ಣಿತು - adu paṇṇitu |
| ನೀ ಪಣ್ಣಿನೆಯ -
nī paṇṇine/paṇṇinya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಪಣ್ಣಿನೊಂ - nanga paṇṇinoṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ಪಣ್ಣಿನಾ - avu paṇṇinā | ನೀಂಗ ಪಣ್ಣಿನ್ಹ್ಯೊ - nīnga paṇṇinhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಪಣ್ಣಿನಾ - ave paṇṇinā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಪಣ್ಣಿನಾ - avhāḷa paṇṇinā |
ಉಡು - -ಡು ending verbs without a stressed penultimate syllable (change to -ಟ್ಟ-)
| ನಾ ಉಟ್ಟೆ - nā uṭṭe | ಅದು ಉಟ್ಟದು - adu uṭṭadu |
| ನೀ ಉಟ್ಟೆಯ - nī uṭṭeya/uṭṭya (statement/question) | ನಾಂಗ ಉಟ್ಟುಂ - nanga uṭṭuṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ಉಟ್ಟಾಂ - avu uṭṭāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಉಟ್ಠ್ಯೊ - nīnga uṭṭhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಉಟ್ಟಾ - ave uṭṭā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಉಟ್ಟಾ - avhāḷa uṭṭā |
ಸಾಪಡು - -ಡು ending verbs with an unstressed penultimate syllable
| ನಾ ಸಾಪಟೆ - nā sāpaṭe | ಅದು ಸಾಪಟುದು - adu sāpaṭudu |
| ನೀ ಸಾಪಟೆಯ/ಸಾಪಟ್ಯ -
nī sāpaṭeya/sāpaṭya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಸಾಪಟುಂ - nanga sāpaṭuṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ಸಾಪಟಾಂ - avu sāpaṭāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಸಾಪಠ್ಯೊ - nīnga sāpaṭhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಸಾಪಟಾ - ave sāpaṭā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಸಾಪಟಾ - avhāḷa sāpaṭā |
ಪಾರು - stressed long vowel as the penultimate syllable (change the final syllable to -ತು)
| ನಾ ಪಾತೆ - nā pāte | ಅದು ಪಾತದು - adu pātadu |
| ನೀ ಪಾತ್ಯ/ಪಾತೆಯ -
nī pātya/pāteya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಪಾತೊಂ - nanga pātoṃ |
| ಅವು ಪಾತಾಂ - avu pātāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಪಾಥ್ಯೊ - nīnga pāthyo |
| ಅವೆ ಪಾತಾ - ave pātā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಪಾತಾ - avhāḷa pātā |
ಇಳಿ - -ಇ ending verbs
| ನಾ ಇಳಿಂಜೆ - nā iḷiṃje | ಅದು ಇಳಿಂಜುದು - adu iḷimjudu |
| ನೀ ಇಳಿಂಜೆಯ - nī iḷiṃjeya | ನಾಂಗ ಇಳಿಂಜುಂ - nanga iḷimjuṃ |
| ಅವು ಇಳಿಂಜಾಂ - avu iḷiṃjāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಇಳಿಂಝ್ಯೊ - nīnga iḷiṃjhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಇಳಿಂಜಾ - ave iḷimjā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಇಳಿಂಜಾ - avhāḷa iḷiṃjā |
ಉಳು (uḷu to fall) (also ಅಳಿ, ನಡಿ)
| ನಾ ಉಳಂದೆ - nā uḷunde | ಅದುಉಳುಂದದು- adu uḷuṃdadu |
| ನೀ ಉಳುಂದ್ಯ/ಉಳುಂದೆಯ - nī uḷuṃdya/uḷuṃdeya | ನಾಂಗಉಳುಂದುಂ- nanga uḷunduṃ |
| ಅವು ಉಳುಂಡಾಂ - avu uḷuṃdāṃ | ನೀಂಗಉಳುಂಢ್ಯೊ- nīnga uḷuṃḍhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಉಳುಂಡಾ - ave uḷuṃḍā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳಉಳುಂಡಾ - avhāḷa uḷuṃḍā |
This is a special pattern unique to ನಿಲ್ಲಿ (nilli) and -ಕ್ಯೊ (-kyo) ending verbs (ex. ತುಂಕ್ಯೊ - tuṃkyo)
| ನಾ ನಿಂಡೆ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡೆ - nā niṃḍe/tuṃkiṃḍe | ಅದು ನಿಂಡದು/ತುಂಕಿಂಡದು - adu niṃḍadu/tuṃkiṃḍadu |
| ನೀ (ನಿಂಡ್ಯ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡ್ಯ)/(ನಿಂಡೆಯ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡೆಯ) -
nī (niṃḍya/tuṃkiṃḍya)/(niṃḍeya/tuṃkiṃḍeya)(statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ನಿಂಡುಂ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡುಂ - nanga niṃḍuṃ/tuṃkiṃḍuṃ |
| ಅವು ನಿಂಡಾಂ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡಾಂ - avu niṃḍāṃ/tuṃkiṃḍāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ನಿಂಢ್ಯೊ/ತುಂಕಿಂಢ್ಯೊ - nīnga niṃḍhyo/tuṃkiṃḍhyo |
| ಅವೆ ನಿಂಡಾ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡಾ - ave niṃḍā/tuṃkiṃḍā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ನಿಂಡಾ/ತುಂಕಿಂಡಾ - avhāḷa niṃḍā/tuṃkiṃḍā |
The following verbs are irregular:
ಕುಡು (to give)
| ನಾ ಕುಡ್ತೆ - nā kuḍte | ಅದು ಕುಡ್ತದು - adu kuḍtadu |
| ನೀ ಕುಡ್ತ್ಯ/ಕುಡ್ತೆಯ - nī kuḍtya/kuḍteya (statement/question) | ನಾಂಗ ಕುಡ್ತೊಂ - nanga kuḍtoṃ |
| ಅವು ಕುಡ್ತಾಂ - avu kuḍtāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಕುಡ್ಥ್ಯೊ - nīnga kuḍthyo |
| ಅವೆ ಕುಡ್ತಾ - ave kuḍtā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಕುಡ್ತಾ - avhāḷa kuḍtā |
ಪುಡಿ (to carry)
| ನಾ ಪುಡಿಚೆ - nā puḍice | ಅದು ಪುಡಿಚದು - adu puḍicā |
| ನೀ ಪುಡಿಚ್ಯ/ಪುಡಿಚೆಯ -
nī puḍicya/puḍiceya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಪುಡಿಚುಂ - nanga puḍicuṃ |
| ಅವು ಪುಡಿಚಾಂ - avu puḍicāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಪುಡಿಛ್ಯೊ - nīnga puḍichyo |
| ಅವೆ ಪುಡಿಚಾ - ave puḍicā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಪುಡಿಚಾ - avhāḷa puḍicā |
ಚಿರಿ/ಉರಿ (to smile/peel) (add -ಚ- before adding endings)
| ನಾ ಚಿರ್ಚೆ/ಉರ್ಚೆ - nā circe/urce | ಅದು ಚಿರ್ಚದು/ಉರ್ಚದು - adu circadu/urcadu |
| ನೀ (ಚಿರ್ಚ್ಯ/ಚಿರ್ಚೆಯ)/(ಉರ್ಚ್ಯ/ಉರ್ಚೆಯ) -
nī (circya/circeya)/(urcya/urceya) (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಚಿರ್ಚೊಂ/ಉರ್ಚೊಂ - nanga circoṃ/urcoṃ |
| ಅವು ಚಿರ್ಚಾಂ/ಉರ್ಚಾಂ - avu circāṃ/urcāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ಚಿರ್ಛ್ಯೊ/ಉರ್ಛ್ಯೊ - nīnga circhyo/urchyo |
| ಅವೆ ಚಿರ್ಚಾ/ಉರ್ಚಾ- ave circā/urcā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಚಿರ್ಚಾ/ಉರ್ಚಾ - avhāḷa circā/urcā |
ತೋಯಿ (to wash)
| ನಾ ತೋಚೆ - nā toce | ಅದು ತೋಚದು - adu tōcadu |
| ನೀ ತೋಚ್ಯ/ತೋಚೆಯ -
nī tōcya/tōceya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ತೋಚುಂ - nanga tōcuṃ |
| ಅವು ತೋಚಾಂ - avu tōcāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ತೋಛ್ಯೊ - nīnga tōchyo |
| ಅವೆ ತೋಚಾ - ave tōcāṃ | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ತೋಚಾ - avhāḷa tōcā |
ವಯ್ಯಿ (to scold)
| ನಾ ವಶ್ಶೆ - nā vaśśe | ಅದು ವಶ್ಶದು - adu vaśśadu |
| ನೀ ವಶ್ಶ್ಯ/ವಶ್ಶೆಯ -
nī vaśśye/vaśśeya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ವಶ್ಶುಂ - nanga vaśśuṃ |
| ಅವು ವಶ್ಶಾಂ - avu vaśśāṃ | ನೀಂಗ ವಶ್ಶ್ಹ್ಯೊ - nīnga vaśśhyo |
| ಅವೆ ವಶ್ಶಾ - ave vaśśā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ವಶ್ಶಾ - avhāḷa vaśśā |
ಇರು (to be)
| ನಾ ಇಂದೆ - nā inde | ಅದು ಇಂದದು - adu iṃdadu |
| ನೀ ಇರಂಡೆಯ - nī iraṃḍeya | ನಾಂಗ ಇಂದ್ನೂಂ/ಇನ್ನೂಂ - nanga iṃdnūṃ/innuṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ಇನ್ನ - avu inna | ನೀಂಗ ಇಂಢ್ಯೊ - nīnga iṃḍhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಇಂದ - ave iṃda | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಇಂದ - avhāḷa iṃda |
ವರು (to come)
| ನಾ ವಂದೆ - nā inde | ಅದು ವಂದು - adu vaṃdadu |
| ನೀ ವಂದ್ಯ/ವಂದೆಯ - nī vaṃdya/vaṃdeya | ನಾಂಗ ವನ್ನೂಂ - nanga vannuṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ವನ್ನ - avu vanna | ನೀಂಗ ವಂಧ್ಯೊ - nīnga vaṃdhyo |
| ಅವೆ ವಂದ - ave vaṃda | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ವಂದ - avhāḷa vaṃda |
ಪೋಹು (to go)
| ನಾ ಪೋನೆ - nā pōne | ಅದು ಪೋಚು - adu pōcu |
| ನೀ ಪೋನ್ಯ/ಪೋನೆಯ -
nī pōnya/pōneya |
ನಾಂಗ ಪೋನ್ನುಂ - nanga pōnnuṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ಪೋನ್ನ - avu pōnna | ನೀಂಗ ಪೋನ್ಹ್ಯೊ - nīnga ponhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಪೋನ - ave pōna | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಪೋನ - avhāḷa pōna |
ಆಹು (to happen/become)
| ನಾ ಆಯ್ರಾಣಿ - nā āyraṇi | ಅದು ಆಚು - adu ācu |
| ನೀ ಆನಾ/ಆನೆಯ -
nī ānā/āneya (statement/question) |
ನಾಂಗ ಆನುಂ - nanga ānuṃ |
| ಅವುಂ ಆನಾ - avu ānā | ನೀಂಗ ಅನ್ಹ್ಯೊ - nīnga ānhyo |
| ಅವೆ ಆನಾ - ave ānā | ಅವ್ಹಾಳ ಆನಾ - avhāḷa ānā |
Past Perfect/Past Progressive or Remote Past
The past progressive and past perfect in Sankethi are the same, and their meaning is distinguished only by context. For this reason, the conjugations below may be referred to jointly as the remote past.
| ನಾ ಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂದೆ- nā sāpaḍānninde | ಅದುಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂದು - adu sāpaḍānnindu |
| ನೀಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂಡೆಯ- nī sāpaḍānninḍeya | ನಾಂಗಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿನೂಂ - nanga sāpaḍānninūṃ |
| ಅವು ಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿನ- avu sāpaḍānninna | ನೀಂಗಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂಢ್ಯೊ - nīnga sāpaḍānninḍhyō |
| ಅವೆಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂದ - ave sāpaḍānninda | ಅವ್ಹಾಳಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂದ - avhāḷa sāpaḍānninda |
Future
This is a hypothetical construction for the future tense in Sankethi, though it functions more like a hypothetical ("Shall I...?"). C.T. Dathathreya reconstructs this set of conjugations by referring to Tamil and Kannada conjugations for the future tense.[5] In a literary or poetic context, it would likely imply the future tense, and when appearing as an instruction, it has the jussive meaning of "must do" or the passive meaning "will be done". Dathathreya refers to this as the "future indefinite", suggesting a distant (hence very hypothetical) circumstance.
| ನಾ ಸಾಪಡವೆ- nā sāpaḍave | ಅದು ಸಾಪಮ್- adu sāpaḍum |
| ನೀಸಾಪಡವೆಯ- nī sāpaḍaveya | ನಾಂಗಸಾಪಡವೊ(ಂ) - nanga sāpaḍavo(ṃ) |
| ಅವುಸಾಪಡವಾಂ- avu sāpāḍavāṃ | ನೀಂಗಸಾಪಡವ್ಹ್ಯೊ - nīnga sāpaḍavhyo |
| ಅವೆಸಾಪಡವ - ave sāpaḍava | ಅವ್ಹಾಳಸಾಪಡವ- avhāḷa sāpaḍava |
Negation
Negation is indicated by suffixing the appropriate ending, and similar to Kannada, there are separate forms for each tense. Again, the example verb is ಸಾಪಡು (sāpaḍu). Some Sankethi speakers negate with the ending -ಅಲ್ಲೆ (alle) and others with -ಅಲ್ಲ (alla). It varies with the generation of the speakers and their proximity to Tamil or Kannada communities. The negative future is a hypothetical construction based on C.T. Dathathreya's reconstruction.[citation needed]
Present: ಸಾಪಡಲ್ಲ (sāpaḍalla)
Present Progressive: ಸಾಪಡರಾಂಡಿಕ್ಕಲ್ಲ (sāpaḍarāṃḍikkalla)
Past/Present Perfect: ಸಾಪಡಿಕ್ಕಲ್ಲ (sāpaḍikkalla)
Past Progressive: ಸಾಪಡಾನ್ನಿಂದಲ್ಲ (sāpaḍānnindalla)
Future: ಸಪಡವಿಲ್ಲ (sāpaḍavilla)
Imperative
| Low (male) | ಪಣ್ಡೋ (paṇḍō) |
| Low (female) | ಪಣ್ಡೇ (paṇḍē) |
| Standard | ಪಣ್ಣು (paṇṇu) |
| Polite | ಪಣ್ಣಂಗೊ (paṇṇango) |
| Optative | ಪಣ್ಣಿಡು (paṇṇiḍu) |
| Hortative | ಪಣ್ದಮೊ (paṇdamo) |
Prohibitive
| Dismissive/Insistent/Low "don't" | ಪಣ್ಣವಾನಕಡೋ (paṇṇavānakaḍō) |
| Non-polite "don't" | ಪಣ್ಣವಾಣ (paṇṇavāṇa) |
| Polite "please don't" | ಪಣ್ಣವಾಣಂಗೊ (paṇṇavāṇango) |
| Recommending "shouldn't" | ಪಣ್ಣಕಾಹದು (paṇṇakāhadu) |
| Forbidding "mustn't" | ಪಣ್ಣಕುಡಾದು (paṇṇakuḍādu) |
See also
[edit]Sample text
[edit]English
[edit]All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Kannada script
[edit]ಏಲ್ಲಾ ಮನುಶ್ಯಂಗಳೂ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರಮಯಿಟೆ ಹುಟ್ಟಂಡಾ. ಆವ್ಹಾಳುಕ್ಕುಮೆ ಆಂತಃಕರಣೂ ಘನತೆ ಹಕ್ಕು ರೆಂಡೂ ಉಂಡೂ. ವಿವೇಕೂ ಆಂತಃಕರಣೂ ಇಕರ್ತಣ್ಣೂ ಅವ್ಹಾಲೂಮೆ ವತ್ತರೂ ಕೊತ್ತರೂ ತಮಯೂಂ ತಮ್ಬ್ಯಾನ್ಯು ಪೋಲೆ ನಡಂಧ್ಗಣೂ.
Latin script
[edit]Ellā manuśyangaḷū svatantramayiṭe huṭṭanḍā. Avhāḷukkume āntahkaraṇū ghanate hakku renḍū unḍū. Vivēkū antaḥkaraṇū ikartaṇṇū avhālūme vattarū kottarū tamayūṃ tambyānyu pōle naḍandhgaṇū.
References
[edit]- ^ "NASA - Fostering the global Sankethi community".
- ^ Tamil at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ Ananthanarayana, H.S. (2007). Sanketi : A Linguistic Study. Mysore: Samudaya Adhyayana Kendra Charitable Trust. pp. 214–219.
- ^ Nagaraja, K.S. (1982). "Tense in Sanketi Tamila Comparative Note". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute. 41: 126–129. JSTOR 42931419.
- ^ Dathathreya, C. T., Sankethi Bhasha Swabodhini.
- Dr.Shrikaanth K.Murthy- Article in Sanketi Sangama, February 2006 (Published from Shimoga)
- Dravidabhashavijnana by Hampa Nagarajaiah (Published by D.V.K.Murthy publishers, Mysore, India)
- Sanketi jananga, samskruti mattu bhashe- C.S.Ramachandarao (Published by Chaitra Pallavi Publishers, Mysore)
- Nacharammana Jivana Carite- M. Keshaviah (published from Mysore)
- Shreyash S -Article in Sanketi Sangama [Published by Chaitra Pallavi Publishers, Bangalore]
- Iyengar, Arvind (2013). A Phonological Overview of the Hebbar Iyengar language. Australia: University of New England. doi:10.13140/2.1.1703.6488.
Sankethi language
View on GrokipediaClassification and history
Linguistic classification
Sankethi belongs to the South Dravidian branch of the Dravidian language family and is positioned within the Tamil-Kannada subgroup.[4] This classification reflects its shared Proto-Dravidian roots with major literary languages such as Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.[4] The language exhibits substantial lexical similarity with Tamil and Kannada, though these overlaps are derived from comparative Dravidian studies and vary by methodology.[4] These overlaps distinguish Sankethi from other regional varieties, such as the Thigala dialect spoken by the Thigala community in Karnataka, which aligns more closely with colloquial Tamil but lacks Sankethi's specific Kannada influences.[1] Linguists debate whether Sankethi constitutes an independent language or a dialect, primarily due to challenges in mutual intelligibility with standard Tamil and Kannada. While some classify it as a dialect of Madurai Tamil given its historical ties, others argue it has evolved into a distinct variety not fully comprehensible to speakers of the standard forms.[1] Dravidian scholar Hampa Nagarajaiah, in his work Dravidabhashavijnana, supports its status as an independent language based on phonological and lexical divergences.[5] Sankethi currently lacks an ISO 639-3 code, resulting in its unclassified status within major linguistic inventories like Glottolog and Ethnologue.[6] This omission stems from its small speaker base and perceived proximity to larger Dravidian languages, limiting formal documentation efforts.Origins and development
The Sankethi language traces its origins to the migration of the Sankethi Brahmin community from Sengottai and surrounding areas in southern Tamil Nadu, particularly Tirunelveli district, to Karnataka. Historical accounts of the migration vary, with some sources suggesting it occurred between the 11th and 12th centuries from Shenkotai, while others indicate the 14th to 16th centuries.[2][7][8] Accounts often include legendary elements, such as a curse by a figure named Nacharamma, prompting group migrations in waves. This movement, involving groups fleeing potential religious persecution or economic hardships under historical rulers, led to settlements in the Malnad hill regions of Hassan, Mysore, and Shimoga districts.[7] The earliest documented evidence of their presence includes a 1448 land grant in Hemmige by a Vijayanagara king, suggesting the bulk of the migration occurred prior to the 15th century.[7] Following settlement, Sankethi evolved as a hybrid language through prolonged contact with Kannada, the prevailing regional tongue, and Sanskrit, which was central to the community's Vedic scholarship and rituals.[7][9] This interaction resulted in phonological shifts, lexical borrowings, and grammatical adaptations, transforming an initial Tamil base into a distinct variety unintelligible to standard Tamil or Kannada speakers, as noted by Dravidian linguists like Hampa Nagarajaiah.[10] The community adopted the Kannada script for occasional writing, abandoning earlier Tamil orthography, while prioritizing oral transmission for religious and cultural knowledge.[7] Geographic isolation in scattered villages promoted the emergence of distinct dialects, varying by settlement clusters like those around Kaushika and Bettadapura, which preserved local innovations amid limited external exchange.[9] Until the 20th century, documentation remained scarce, with the language sustained through oral traditions in households, temples, and performing arts such as Karnatik music.[7] Contemporary preservation efforts, including language workshops and cultural programs by the North American Sankethi Association, have intensified since the early 2000s to counter assimilation pressures.[11]Speakers and usage
Geographic distribution
The Sankethi language is primarily spoken in southern Karnataka, India, where the majority of its speakers reside in rural villages across several districts, including Hassan, Mysore, Shivamogga (Shimoga), Chikmagalur, and Mandya.[12] These communities are concentrated in specific settlements tied to Sankethi Brahmin gotras, such as Kowshika near Hassan, Bettadapura in Mysore district, Lingadahalli, and the twin villages of Mattur and Hosahalli in Shivamogga district.[7] Other notable villages include Vaddarahalli, Hondanahalli, Marithamanahalli, Krishnapura, Chilkunda, Periyapatna, Rudrapatna, Ramanathapura, Hanasoge, Agrahara, Saligrama, and Harave, often located in the Malnad (hilly) regions along the Cauvery River basin.[7][8] Historical migrations originating from areas like Sengottai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, and Trichur in Tamil Nadu led to the establishment of these enclaves in Karnataka, possibly via routes through South Canara and Coorg due to famine, religious persecution, or invitations from Vijayanagara rulers.[1][7] Over time, some communities have shifted to urban areas, particularly Bangalore (Bengaluru), where active Sankethi organizations like the Kowshika Sankethi Sangha and Bengaluru Sankethi Mahila Samaja Trust support cultural ties among professionals.[13][14] Small pockets of speakers persist in Tamil Nadu, reflecting lingering ancestral connections in districts like Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari.[15] Beyond India, Sankethi speakers form a diaspora in the United States and United Kingdom, driven by professional migration, with organizations such as the North American Sankethi Association fostering community networks in cities like London and various U.S. locations, including a cultural event in July 2025.[11] The total Sankethi population, closely aligned with language speakers, is estimated at around 35,000 to 60,000 worldwide as of 2014, primarily among Brahmin families, though no official census data exists; approximations derive from community ethnolinguistic surveys.[16][13] Dialect variations, such as those between Kaushika and Bettadpura groups, reflect these regional distributions.[7]Sociolinguistic status
Sankethi is classified as a highly endangered language, with fluent speakers estimated at fewer than 50,000 as of 2020, primarily among the elderly members of the Sanketi Smartha Brahmin community (Nagaraja 2020), based on assessments from the early 1990s indicating around 25,000 speakers.[17] This small and declining speaker base places it on Karnataka's official list of endangered languages, reflecting limited use outside intimate family and community settings.[17] The language faces significant pressure from language shift, as younger generations increasingly adopt Kannada—the dominant regional language—and English, especially in education, employment, and media consumption.[12] This transition has led to substantial loss of intergenerational transmission, with many Sankethi families prioritizing proficiency in these majority languages for socioeconomic mobility, further eroding daily use of Sankethi.[17] Despite these challenges, Sankethi remains integral to Sanketi Brahmin cultural identity, serving as the medium for religious rituals, oral folklore transmission, and traditional naming practices in cuisine and household customs.[18] However, it is notably absent from formal domains such as government administration, public media, and school curricula, confining its role to non-official, heritage-based contexts.[17] Revitalization initiatives include online language learning classes launched on YouTube in 2020 by linguist Dr. Shrikaanth Krishnamurthy, aimed at teaching basic grammar and vocabulary to diaspora and younger learners.[19] Community organizations, such as the North American Sankethi Association, foster cultural events that incorporate the language, while academic efforts at the Centre for Endangered Languages, Central University of Karnataka, focus on documentation and reconstruction to preserve its structure, including a 2020 grammar publication and ongoing research projects as of 2025.[11][17][20] Despite these activities, Sankethi receives no official governmental recognition or integration into educational systems, limiting broader revival prospects.[3]Phonology
Consonants
Sankethi possesses a consonant inventory comprising approximately 25 phonemes, characteristic of South Dravidian languages with retroflex series but augmented by aspirated variants arising from historical sound changes and Kannada substrate influence.[21] These include standard stops, nasals, fricatives, approximants, laterals, and rhotic sounds, with aspiration primarily affecting obstruents due to Sanskrit borrowings and dialectal evolution.[22] The full set of consonants is presented in the following chart using International Phonetic Alphabet symbols, organized by manner and place of articulation:| Manner/Place | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosives (voiceless aspirated/voiced) | p pʰ b bʰ | t tʰ d dʰ | ʈ ʈʰ ɖ ɖʰ | t͡ɕ t͡ɕʰ d͡ʑ d͡ʑʰ | k kʰ g gʰ | |
| Nasals | m | n | ɳ | ɲ | ŋ | |
| Fricatives | s | ʃ | h | |||
| Approximants | ʋ | j | ||||
| Laterals | l | ɭ | ||||
| Rhotic | r |
Vowels
The vowel system of Sankethi is characterized by a basic inventory of six vowels—/i/, /e/, /a/, /ə/, /u/, /o/—with phonemic distinctions in length (short and long forms) and nasalization, yielding up to 24 vowel phonemes when all combinations are considered.[22] This structure reflects influences from its Tamil base while incorporating variations typical of border dialects in contact with Kannada. Long vowels are contrastive, as in pār 'to say' versus pāru 'look', and nasalization often appears in specific morphological contexts or loanwords.[22] Sankethi exhibits limited vowel assimilation, where mid and high vowels may centralize or lower adjacent to low vowels. Compensatory lengthening occurs in certain consonant clusters, where a short vowel preceding a geminate or cluster elongates to maintain syllable weight, such as in verb roots under affixation. Nasal vowels are phonemic and frequently arise from historical nasalization processes or Sanskrit loanwords, where original rounded vowels like /o/ may retain labialization (e.g., /õː/ in terms derived from Sanskrit soma).[22] Diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ are present, primarily in native vocabulary and borrowings, serving to break potential vowel hiatus.[22] Suprasegmentally, Sankethi lacks lexical stress but features syllable prominence often on the first or penultimate syllable, contributing to rhythmic flow.[24] Intonation plays a key role in questions, marked by rising pitch on the penultimate or final syllable, distinguishing interrogatives from declaratives.[25] Dialectal differences, such as in the Kaushika and Bettadpura varieties, affect vowel realization and aspiration strength.[1]Writing system
Script
The Sankethi language employs the Kannada script as its primary writing system, an abugida derived from the Brahmic family of scripts and adapted for regional use in Karnataka. This script facilitates the representation of Sankethi's Dravidian phonological features through its syllabic structure, where consonants inherently carry an implied vowel that can be modified or suppressed using diacritics.[1] Historically, Sankethi transitioned from a predominantly oral tradition to written documentation influenced by Kannada, particularly since the 20th century, as the community integrated into Karnataka's linguistic landscape following their migrations from Shenkotai in southern Tamil Nadu between 1087 and 1120 AD.[2] Unlike Tamil, which retains its own indigenous script, Sankethi speakers gradually abandoned the Tamil script in favor of Kannada, reflecting cultural assimilation while preserving their distinct dialect.[1] The Kannada script for Sankethi utilizes the complete alphabet comprising 49 primary characters: 13 independent vowels, 34 consonant letters, and associated vowel signs, along with conjunct consonants formed by ligating multiple consonants to denote clusters common in Dravidian sounds. These elements allow for precise encoding of Sankethi's phonology, such as retroflex and aspirated consonants.[1] Written usage of Sankethi remains limited, primarily appearing in cultural and literary contexts like songs, poetry, and prose, with examples from early 20th-century works including transcribed folk narratives and devotional compositions that highlight the community's heritage. Resources like Omniglot provide charts of Sankethi consonants in Kannada script.[1]Orthography
The Sankethi language employs the Kannada script for writing, which is an abugida system featuring 49 primary characters, including 13 vowels and 34 consonants, with diacritics (matras) used to modify consonant-inherent vowels.[26] This script provides phonemic representation, where consonants are depicted with an inherent /a/ sound unless altered by matras for other vowels, and independent vowel forms are used at the beginning of words or after another vowel.[27] Aspirated consonants are handled through dedicated letters in the Kannada script, such as ಖ (kha) for /kʰ/, ಘ (gha) for /gʰ/, and similar forms for other places of articulation, while retroflexes are represented by letters like ಟ (ṭa) for /ʈ/ and ಣ (ṇa) for /ɳ/. Long vowels are distinguished by specific matras, such as ಆ for /aː/ or ಈ for /iː/, attached to consonants or standing independently.[27] Due to Sankethi's primarily oral tradition and absence of a standardized orthography, spelling practices exhibit dialectal inconsistencies, with variations in representing sounds across regions like Bettadpura and Lingadahalli, often leading to ad hoc adaptations of Kannada conventions for Sankethi phonology. Consonant clusters, such as those approximating 'ksh' (ಕ್ಷ) or 'thth' (ಥ್ಥ), pose challenges and are typically rendered using ligatures or subscript forms (ottakshara), though this can result in non-standard forms in informal writing. Punctuation follows standard Kannada usage, including full stops (।) and commas, while vowel matras are positioned above, below, or to the side of consonants for clarity.[1] In recent years, modern adaptations have emerged in digital media and learning resources, where romanization schemes are increasingly used to facilitate accessibility; these often employ simplified Latin transliterations based on phonetic approximation, such as using "kh" for aspirates and doubled letters for long vowels, though no unified standard exists as of 2025.[1]Grammar
Morphology
Sankethi nouns exhibit inflection for gender, number, and case, aligning with typical Dravidian patterns but showing influences from both Tamil and Kannada substrates. The language distinguishes three genders—masculine, feminine, and neuter—and two numbers, singular and plural. Nouns are marked for six cases: nominative (unmarked), accusative, dative, instrumental, genitive, and locative, with suffixes attached directly to the stem; for example, the dative case commonly uses the suffix -ge, as in māṭu-ge ("to the word").[28][17] The pronoun system in Sankethi incorporates clusivity distinctions in the first person plural, differentiating inclusive forms that include the addressee from exclusive forms that exclude them; representative examples include the inclusive nāmbu (ನಾಂಬು) and exclusive nāṅga (ನಾಂಗ). Demonstrative pronouns further encode spatial distinctions, such as proximal (idu, "this") versus distal (adu, "that"), with agreement in gender and number.[28] Verb morphology in Sankethi is agglutinative, featuring tense-aspect-mood conjugations built on root stems that vary by type, including strong and weak classes. Tense markers include -th- for past forms (e.g., paṇṇi-th-ēn, "I did") and -du- for present (e.g., paṇṇu-du, "I do"); mood and aspect are expressed through additional suffixes, while negation typically employs the auxiliary illa post-verbally (e.g., paṇṇilla, "did not do").[22][28] Derivational morphology employs affixes to form new words from bases, such as the agentive suffix -van (e.g., paṇṇavan, "doer") and the abstract noun suffix -am (e.g., paṇṇam, "doing" or "action"). These processes allow for productive word formation, often blending Tamil-derived roots with Kannada-like endings.[28]Syntax
Sankethi exhibits a basic word order of Subject-Object-Verb (SOV), characteristic of Dravidian languages, though topicalization allows flexibility in constituent placement for emphasis or discourse purposes. This structure positions the verb at the end of the clause, with subjects and objects typically preceding it, enabling agglutinative morphology to clarify grammatical relations without strict reliance on position. Verbs in Sankethi agree with the subject in person, number, and gender, a feature inherited from its Dravidian roots, while case marking on nouns and pronouns is achieved through postpositions that follow the modified element. For instance, finite verbs inflect to match the subject's features, such as masculine singular or feminine plural, ensuring congruence across the clause. Relative clauses are formed prenominally using participles derived from non-finite verb forms, which modify the head noun without relative pronouns, aligning with Tamil-influenced patterns in Sankethi. These participial constructions embed descriptive information directly before the noun, as in examples where a verb stem plus a relativizing suffix attributes properties to the referent. Questions in Sankethi are typically formed through intonation rises or interrogative words, which signal inquiry without altering the declarative word order. Complex constructions include coordination via conjunctions like nā for 'and', linking clauses or noun phrases, while negation is expressed post-verbally using the auxiliary illa or dedicated negative forms, and embedding occurs through subordinate clauses marked by non-finite verbs. This allows for hierarchical sentence building, with main clauses dominating embedded ones in SOV sequences.Vocabulary
Lexical sources
The core lexicon of the Sankethi language is predominantly Dravidian in origin, reflecting its close relation to Tamil as a South Dravidian variety, with substantial shared roots also evident in Kannada due to prolonged contact in Karnataka.[29] For instance, terms for everyday items show cognates across these languages. These native roots form the foundation of basic vocabulary, particularly in semantic fields like daily sustenance and household activities, where Sankethi retains forms blending Tamil phonological patterns with Kannada lexical preferences. Borrowings constitute a notable portion of the lexicon, primarily from Sanskrit, given the Sankethi community's Brahmin heritage and ritual practices. Examples include prārthana for 'prayer', which adheres closely to the Sanskrit root rather than the adapted Kannada prārthane or Tamil prārthanai.[2] Sanskrit influence is especially prominent in domains such as religious and philosophical terminology, where words like deva for 'god' are directly incorporated. Modern English loans appear in contemporary usage for technology and global concepts, supplementing the traditional lexicon without displacing native forms. In agricultural and ritual semantic fields, Sankethi exhibits unique retentions and innovations rooted in its Dravidian base, such as specialized terms for rice cultivation that draw from Tamil agrarian vocabulary while incorporating Kannada practical descriptors. Kinship terms often blend Tamil and Kannada forms, filling potential lexical gaps with hybrid expressions that preserve Dravidian relational structures. These elements underscore Sankethi's lexical composition as a synthesis of inherited Dravidian heritage and selective external integrations, maintaining distinctiveness amid regional influences.Word formation
Sankethi employs compounding as a primary mechanism for word formation, particularly through noun-noun combinations to denote relational concepts. For instance, the compound āḷ-māni combines āḷ ('person') and māni ('stone') to mean 'milestone,' illustrating how concrete objects are metaphorically extended via juxtaposition.[17] Verb-noun compounds are also productive, forming terms for actions or processes, such as those describing ritual or daily activities influenced by the community's Brahmin heritage.[17] Derivational processes in Sankethi rely on suffixes to modify base words, drawing from Dravidian morphological patterns. The suffix -mayu attaches to adjectives or nouns to indicate abundance or quality, as in taṇ-mayu ('full of coolness' or 'coolness'), which derives from taṇ ('cool').[17] Reduplication serves an intensifying function, often applied to adjectives for emphasis in spoken and poetic contexts; an example is nī-nī ('very good'), where partial repetition of nī ('good') amplifies the attribute.[17] These derivations typically build on existing morphological bases like roots from Tamil or Kannada substrates.[17] Blending and clipping occur due to historical contacts between Kannada and Tamil, resulting in hybrid forms, especially in ritual terminology. Shortened variants of longer phrases emerge in religious or ceremonial lexicon, adapting borrowed elements for efficiency while retaining core meanings.[17] Overall, word formation in Sankethi shows high productivity in expressive domains such as songs and folklore, where compounds and reduplications enhance rhythm and emotion, yet remains conservative in core vocabulary to preserve Dravidian integrity.[17]Sample text
Kannada script
The sample passage below is an excerpt from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, translated into Sankethi. ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಮನುಷ್ಯಂಗಳೂ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರಮಯಿಟೆ ಹುಟ್ಟಂಡಾ. ಅವಹಾಳುಕ್ಕುಮೆ ಆಂತಹ್ಕರಣೂ ಘನತೆ ಹಕ್ಕು ರೆಂಡೂ ಉಂಡೂ. ವಿವೇಕೂ ಅಂತಃಕರಣೂ ಇಕರ್ತಣ್ಣೂ ಅವಹಾಳೂಮೆ ವತ್ತರೂ ಕೊತ್ತರೂ ತಮಯೂಂ ತಂಬ್ಯಾನ್ಯು ಪೋಲೆ ನಡಂದ್ಗಣೂ.Romanization
The romanization of the Sankethi sample text, drawn from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Romanized sample text: Ellā manuśyangaḷū svatantramayiṭe huṭṭanḍā.Avhāḷukkume āntahkaraṇū ghanate hakku renḍū unḍū.
Vivēkū antaḥkaraṇū ikartaṇṇū avhālūme vattarū kottarū tamayūṃ tambyānyu pōle naḍandhgaṇū.[1]