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Cape May warbler
Cape May warbler
Cape May warbler
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Cape May warbler
Male
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Parulidae
Genus: Setophaga
Species:
S. tigrina
Binomial name
Setophaga tigrina
(Gmelin, JF, 1789)
Range of S. tigrina
  Breeding range
  Wintering range
Synonyms
  • Motacilla tigrina Gmelin, JF, 1789 (protonym)
  • Dendroica tigrina
  • Sylvia maritima Wilson, 1812

The Cape May warbler (Setophaga tigrina) is a species of New World warbler. It breeds in northern North America. Its breeding range spans all but the westernmost parts of southern Canada, the Great Lakes region, and New England. It is migratory, wintering in the West Indies. This species is a very rare vagrant to western Europe, with two records in Britain as of October 2013. The English name refers to Cape May, New Jersey, where George Ord collected the specimen that was later described by Alexander Wilson.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The Cape May warbler was formally described in 1789 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it in the genus Motacilla and coined the binomial name Motacilla tigrina.[2][3] The specific epithet is from Latin tigrinus meaning "tigrine" or "barred or striped like a tiger".[4] Gmelin based his account on "The yellow spotted fly-catcher" that had been described by the English naturalist George Edwards in 1758,[5] and "Le figuier brun de Canada" that had been described by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.[6] The Cape May warbler is now one of more than 30 species placed in the genus Setophaga that was introduced in 1827 by the English naturalist William Swainson.[7] The genus name Setophaga combines the Ancient Greek σης/sēs, σητος/sētos meaning "moth" with -φαγος/-phagos meaning "-eating".[8] The species is monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.[7]

The species was described in 1812 by the American ornithologist Alexander Wilson based on a single specimen that had been collected by George Ord at Cape May in New Jersey. Wilson introduced the English name "Cape May warbler".[9] This species was not recorded again in Cape May for another 100 years, although it is now known as an uncommon migrant there.[10]

Description

[edit]
South Padre Island - Texas

This bird is a small passerine and is a mid-sized New World warbler. Length can vary from 12–14 cm (4.7–5.5 in), wingspan is 19–22 cm (7.5–8.7 in), and body mass can range from 9–17.3 g (0.32–0.61 oz).[11] [12][13] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 6.1–7.3 cm (2.4–2.9 in), the tail is 4.3–5 cm (1.7–2.0 in), the bill is 0.9–1.2 cm (0.35–0.47 in) and the tarsus is 1.7–1.9 cm (0.67–0.75 in).[14] The adult male Cape May warbler has a brown back, yellowish rump and dark brown crown. The underparts are yellow streaked with black, giving rise to the bird's scientific name. The throat and nape are bright yellow and the face has a striking chestnut patch framed in yellow with a black eyestripe.[15] There is a narrow white wing bar.

Plumages of the female and immature male resemble washed-out versions of the adult male, lacking the strong head pattern. The yellowish rump, and at least indications of the white wing bar, are always present.[16]

Biology

[edit]

This species is insectivorous and lays larger clutches in years when spruce budworm is abundant. It picks insects from the tips of conifer branches or flies out to catch insects. The Cape May warbler also feeds on berry juice and nectar in winter, and has, uniquely for a warbler, a tubular tongue to facilitate this behavior.[11]

The breeding habitat of this bird is the edges of coniferous woodland. Cape May warblers nest in dense foliage near the trunk of the tree, commonly the black spruce, and lays a clutch of 4–9 eggs in a cup nest. This species can lay the largest clutch of any New World warbler, probably in response to increases in the numbers of spruce budworm during outbreaks.[11]

The song of the Cape May warbler is a simple repetition of high tsi notes. The call is a thin sip. This bird usually sings from high perches.[11]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cape May warbler

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Cape May warbler ( tigrina) is a small, migratory in the family Parulidae, measuring 4.7–5.1 inches (12–13 cm) in length with a of 7.9–8.7 inches (20–22 cm) and weighing 0.4–0.5 ounces (10.2–15.2 g). Males are strikingly patterned with a mossy green upperparts, a ear patch framed by yellow, dense rufous tiger stripes across the yellow breast, and a large white wing patch, while females and immatures are duller with yellowish-green rumps and lacking the vivid patch. Named for its first collection in , in 1811, this species is notable for its slender, decurved bill and unique semitubular tongue adapted for sipping , a rare trait among warblers. Breeding exclusively in mature boreal forests of and balsam fir across and the , the Cape May warbler favors coniferous stands aged 25–75 years, often nesting high (35–60 feet) in cup-shaped structures of moss, vines, and weeds lined with feathers or fur. Clutch sizes average 6 eggs (ranging 4–9), which are whitish with reddish-brown spots, and increase during outbreaks of spruce budworm, its primary prey; females likely incubate for 11–13 days, with both parents feeding the young. The species is territorial, with males defending about 1 acre, and produces a high-pitched of thin "seet-seet-seet-seet" notes to attract mates and claim . As a long-distance Neotropical migrant, the Cape May warbler travels mostly at night, moving northward through in spring and southward along the Atlantic Coast in fall, though it appears in a wide array of wooded, scrubby, or even urban habitats during passage, particularly favoring spruces. It winters in the , including and , where it inhabits diverse areas from palm crowns and plantations to shrubby gardens, sometimes lingering irregularly in the southern U.S. primarily in treetops, it gleans, hovers, or pursues like spruce budworms, wasps, and moths during breeding, shifting to about one-third , from tropical flowers, and berries in winter, often defending nectar sources aggressively. The Cape May warbler's population, estimated at around 7 million individuals, fluctuates with spruce budworm cycles but has increased in recent decades, earning it a Least Concern status on the despite habitat pressures from in its breeding grounds. Its oldest recorded age is at least 9 years and 3 months (as of 2022), highlighting a lifespan typical for small warblers amid predation and migration hazards.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Taxonomic classification

The Cape May warbler (Setophaga tigrina) belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Aves, order Passeriformes, family Parulidae (New World warblers), genus Setophaga, and species S. tigrina. It is considered a monotypic species, with no recognized subspecies. Originally described as Motacilla tigrina by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789, the species was later transferred to the genus Dendroica. In 2011, it was reclassified into the expanded genus Setophaga based on comprehensive genetic analyses revealing its close phylogenetic ties to other warblers formerly in Dendroica, including the yellow-rumped warbler (S. coronata). This merger transformed Setophaga from a monotypic genus into one encompassing 34 species. Within , multilocus phylogenetic studies, incorporating sequences, position the Cape May warbler as sister to a small clade that includes the (S. cerulea), (S. americana), and tropical parula (S. pitiayumi). These findings underscore the evolutionary convergence among New World warblers in this genus, driven by shared adaptations to forested habitats.

Etymology

The common name of the Cape May warbler derives from , the site where the first North American specimen was collected in May 1811 (or possibly 1812, per conflicting accounts) by naturalist George Ord during an excursion with Alexander Wilson. Wilson, recognizing it as a novel species, formally described and illustrated it as Sylvia maritima in the 1812 sixth volume of his seminal work American Ornithology; or, The Natural History of the Birds of the United States, thereby establishing the English name that persists today. This designation solidified despite the bird's rarity in the region, as it was not observed again in Cape May for over a century. The scientific name Setophaga tigrina reflects both dietary and plumage characteristics. The genus , established by in 1825, originates from roots: sēs or sētos (meaning "moth") combined with -phagos ("eating"), alluding to the warbler's insectivorous habits, which include a preference for s and other small insects. The specific epithet tigrina, coined by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his 1789 , derives from Latin tigris ("tiger"), referencing the bold, tiger-like black streaks on the male's yellow underparts. Gmelin's initial description placed the species under Motacilla tigrina, marking the first formal for the , though Wilson's later work popularized its recognition in American .

Description

Physical characteristics

The Cape May warbler (Setophaga tigrina) is a small with a slender build, measuring 12–13 cm in length, a of 20–22 cm, and a mass of 10.2–15.2 g. Its thin, pointed bill is slightly decurved, an adaptation suited for probing into crevices to extract . Adult males in breeding plumage exhibit vibrant olive-green upperparts accented by a conspicuous yellow rump, bright yellow underparts with bold black streaking across the breast and flanks, a chestnut ear patch, a dark eyeline, a yellow supercilium, and two prominent white wing bars. A yellow collar may also be visible on the nape. Females and immatures display duller overall, featuring grayish-olive upperparts, pale underparts with fainter streaking, a reduced or absent patch on the face, and subtler bars; immatures in fall may lack vivid tones entirely and show a shorter . Breeding is more intensely colored than non-breeding, with males showing heightened vibrancy in and tones, while non-breeding birds retain core identifying features like the rump and bars but appear slightly faded. A distinctive morphological is the warbler's semitubular, curled , which facilitates extraction from flowers.

Vocalizations

The Cape May warbler's primary song is a high-pitched, thin series of 4–8 repetitions of a single note, often described as "seet," "zi," or "tseet," with little variation in pitch or volume. This song typically lasts about 1 second and is delivered from high perches in , averaging 10.7 meters above ground, at a rate of several times per minute during peak breeding activity. A less common variant consists of 2-syllable "seetee seetee" phrases. Males produce these songs primarily for defense and mate attraction, singing most persistently from late May to mid-June in breeding areas before tapering off. Call notes include a thin, sharp "tsip," "sip," or "chip" for alarm, contact, or flight, often with a descending in migratory contexts. A softer "chit" or "prspp" variant may occur during chases or in flocks, while series of "tzee tzee" notes signal agitation. These calls serve functions such as predator alerts, maintaining contact in dense foliage, and pair coordination near nests. Both sexes use calls year-round, with flight calls prominent during nocturnal migration. Vocal variations are subtle across the range, with males exhibiting a of up to 13 types but no pronounced dialects. Juveniles produce simpler begging calls when hungry, which are scratchier and less structured than adult vocalizations. The ' sounds often overlap with those of the Bay-breasted but are distinguishable by a wiry, buzzy quality in recordings.

Distribution and habitat

Breeding distribution

The Cape May warbler (Setophaga tigrina) breeds across the boreal forests of , extending from the southeastern Yukon Territory and northeastern eastward through southern to Newfoundland, and southward into northern United States states such as , the , and . Approximately 83% of the global population nests within Canada's boreal zone, where the species is most abundant. This range reflects the bird's strong association with northern coniferous landscapes, though breeding records become patchier toward the southern and western limits. The species has recently expanded its breeding range into north-central . Within this range, the Cape May warbler prefers the edges of mature coniferous forests, particularly those dominated by black spruce (Picea mariana) and balsam fir (Abies balsamea), which provide dense foliage for nesting and foraging. These habitats typically consist of stands over 50 years old, exceeding 15 meters in height, with well-developed crowns and some emergent trees serving as singing perches. The species favors areas with substantial canopy closure in these conifer-led mixedwoods, avoiding pure deciduous woodlands and selecting sites that offer protective cover near the treetops. Breeding occurs from lowlands up to elevations of about 1,000 meters in mountainous regions, such as the Adirondacks or British Columbia's interior plateaus, where suitable coniferous habitats persist. Local population densities peak in areas affected by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) outbreaks, as these events boost prey availability and temporarily increase warbler abundance.

Non-breeding distribution and migration

The Cape May warbler winters almost exclusively in the , including the such as and the , as well as the , where it occupies a variety of habitats including mangroves, coastal thickets, shade coffee plantations, gardens, and scrub with flowering . It shows high site fidelity in these areas, with 75% of individuals returning to the same Puerto Rican site within a season and 13% returning for a third year. Records are rare in southern , where some may linger in palm tree crowns, and even rarer in or northern . This species is a long-distance, complete migrant that follows an elliptical route, with fall migration shifting eastward compared to the more westerly spring path. Fall migration occurs from mid- to mid-October, peaking in late to early , as s move south along the Atlantic Coast and through the to , often in nocturnal flights and sometimes in large flocks associated with weather fronts. Spring migration takes place from to late May, peaking in mid-May, with s returning north primarily through and more commonly in the Midwest than in fall, though remaining rare west of the . Some overshoot to , where they are common migrants and occasional winter visitors from to May. Vagrancy is infrequent but documented in western North America, with 4–5 spring and 6 fall records annually in , and occasional sightings elsewhere west of the breeding range. It is a very rare vagrant to western Europe, with 29 records in Britain up to recent years, including an immature on in autumn 2013, typically arriving as transatlantic drift migrants in fall. Migration timing and patterns are influenced by age and , with older birds departing earlier in fall and males arriving earlier on winter grounds in spring. Broader movements show irruptive tendencies tied to cycles of spruce budworm outbreaks in breeding areas, which boost populations and lead to larger migratory flocks when food is abundant northward. fronts and availability further drive the pace and scale of these migrations.

Ecology and behavior

Diet and foraging

The Cape May warbler is primarily insectivorous during the breeding season, with spruce budworm larvae (Choristoneura fumiferana) comprising up to approximately 80% of its diet by volume during outbreaks in mid-breeding periods, as observed in gizzard analyses. Other common prey items include , beetles, small moths, leafhoppers, parasitic wasps, flies, , bees, and spiders, which together make up the bulk of its intake. This specialized focus on budworm reflects the bird's opportunistic response to outbreaks, enabling rapid population increases and enhanced fat reserves for migration. Foraging occurs predominantly in the upper canopy (10–20 m) of coniferous trees, where the warbler gleans prey from outer foliage and tips of spruce and fir branches, accounting for over 80% of its feeding activities in breeding habitats. It employs a mix of techniques, including perched (about 55% of observations), fly-catching or hawking (28%), and occasional hovering (14%) to capture aerial . In nonbreeding areas like shade-coffee plantations, it also probes (31%) and reaches (30%) for food while maintaining high activity levels in tree crowns. Seasonal dietary shifts are pronounced: during migration, the warbler supplements insects with berries and small fruits such as grapes. In winter on Caribbean islands, the diet consists of approximately 71% insects, 14% fruit, and 15% nectar or sap (e.g., from flowers like hibiscus, bottlebrush, and agave, and berry juice), allowing persistence in diverse habitats. Wintering individuals defend small feeding territories, spending around 10% of their time on territorial activities to secure nectar resources. A key adaptation is the bird's unique curled, semitubular tongue tip, which facilitates efficient extraction of liquids like nectar and fruit juices during the nonbreeding season.

Reproduction

The Cape May warbler breeds seasonally from late May to July, aligning with peaks in insect abundance, particularly spruce budworm outbreaks in boreal forests, which support higher reproductive output. Pairs are typically monogamous, with males establishing territories of about 1 acre (0.4 hectares) in mature coniferous stands and singing from high perches to attract females. Courtship involves males producing and performing aerial displays, such as flying with rigid wings over prospective nest sites to court females. Once paired, the female constructs a bulky, cup-shaped nest primarily from sphagnum moss, twigs, grasses, and lichens, lined with , feathers, or rootlets; the nest measures approximately 10.4 cm in external diameter and 5.3 cm in height, with an interior cup about 5 cm wide and 3.8 cm deep. Nests are built by the female alone, typically 9–18 m above ground near the trunk in dense foliage of or fir trees. Clutch sizes range from 4 to 9 eggs, with an average of 6—the largest among warblers—and are larger during years of high food availability, such as budworm outbreaks. Eggs are creamy white or pale with reddish-brown or black blotches and measure about 17 mm in length by 13 mm in width. The female alone incubates the eggs for 11–13 days, after which both parents feed the altricial young a diet rich in . Nestlings at 9–12 days old and remain dependent on parents for several weeks post-fledging, with most pairs raising 1 brood per season, though 2 are possible in favorable conditions.

Conservation

The Cape May warbler is classified as Least Concern by the , with the most recent assessment in 2021. Population trends show an overall increase in recent years following historical declines tied to spruce budworm cycles, though declines persist in some core breeding areas according to long-term monitoring data. The global breeding population is estimated at approximately 7–8 million individuals, with about 83% occurring in . Data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) reveal an annual decline of 2.5% from 1966 to 2015, resulting in a cumulative 70% reduction over that period. More recent analyses suggest non-significant increases in some regions, including a 33% rise over the past decade, though long-term patterns remain concerning in certain areas. Historical population dynamics are closely tied to 30–40-year cycles of spruce budworm outbreaks in boreal forests, which drive booms in numbers during peak infestation periods, such as the 1970s–1980s outbreaks across and . Declines follow in the lulls between outbreaks, with evidence of a slight recovery in abundance since 2000, particularly in Canadian breeding grounds. Winter monitoring through eBird observations points to stable populations in the non-breeding range, with consistent detection rates in key areas like the . Regional variations are notable, with steeper declines in the —such as a significant loss in since the 1980s—contrasted by relative stability in . As of 2025, the species is designated as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need in states like New York due to regional declines.

Threats and management

The Cape May warbler faces primary threats from the suppression of spruce budworm outbreaks, its key food source during breeding. Aerial application of insecticides to control budworm infestations has historically caused high mortality rates among the species, with catastrophic die-offs documented during large-scale spraying programs in the 1970s and 1980s. Logging in boreal spruce-fir forests further degrades breeding habitat by reducing mature conifer stands essential for nesting and foraging. Climate change exacerbates these issues by altering boreal forest dynamics and shifting spruce budworm outbreak cycles through warmer winters and changing precipitation patterns, potentially disrupting the warbler's food availability. Additional risks occur during migration and on wintering grounds in the . Window collisions claim over one billion birds annually across the , with neotropical migrants like the Cape May particularly vulnerable during fall and spring passages through urban and coastal areas. Pesticides applied in agricultural and forested winter s pose sublethal risks, including reduced upon return to breeding grounds. Sea-level rise threatens forests in the , where the forages in red mangroves and other coastal vegetation, potentially inundating up to 20-30% of low-lying habitats by mid-century under moderate scenarios. Conservation management emphasizes balancing pest control with avian needs through (IPM) programs for spruce budworm, which promote natural outbreak cycles while minimizing broad-spectrum insecticide use and incorporating bird predation as a regulatory factor. Protected areas in Canada's boreal region, including national parks and forest reserves, safeguard approximately 20% of the warbler's Canadian breeding range, providing refugia from logging and supporting budworm-dependent populations. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act provides legal protection across its range, prohibiting take and habitat destruction while facilitating international cooperation. Ongoing research and monitoring by Partners in Flight designate the Cape May warbler as a Watch List , tracking responses to threats and modeling future vulnerabilities. Climate projections indicate substantial breeding range contraction, with models forecasting an 89% loss of current summer range by 2080 due to shifting suitable habitats northward. Successes include efforts in the Appalachian periphery, which enhance marginal breeding sites and connectivity for peripheral populations.

References

  1. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Cape_May_Warbler/id
  2. https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/cape-may-warbler
  3. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Cape_May_Warbler/overview
  4. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Cape_May_Warbler/lifehistory
  5. https://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/documents/Birds/b_capemaywarbler.pdf
  6. https://www.usgs.gov/labs/bird-banding-laboratory/news/a-surprising-band-recovery-usgs-bird-banding-labs-fall-migration
  7. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=DB20CB6B0A720B90
  8. https://americanornithology.org/george-ords-warbler/
  9. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/introduction
  10. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/sounds
  11. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dendroica_tigrina/
  12. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Cape_May_Warbler/sounds
  13. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/where-the-birds-come-from-the-push-to-protect-the-boreal-forest/
  14. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/why-dont-some-warblers-nest-farther-west-maybe-its-just-too-tough-to-get-there/
  15. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/habitat
  16. https://extapps.dec.ny.gov/docs/wildlife_pdf/sgcncapemaywarbler.pdf
  17. https://friresearch.ca/publications/cape-may-warbler-forestry-fact-sheet
  18. https://www.birdatlas.bc.ca/accounts/speciesaccount.jsp?lang=en&sp=CMWA
  19. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/movement
  20. https://audubon.bm/bird/cape-may-warbler/
  21. https://www.bto.org/learn/about-birds/birdfacts/cape-may-warbler
  22. https://stateofthebirds.nhaudubon.org/bird_database/cape-may-warbler/
  23. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/foodhabits
  24. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/breeding
  25. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/cape-may-warbler-setophaga-tigrina
  26. https://abcbirds.org/bird/cape-may-warbler/
  27. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/camwar/cur/demography
  28. https://wildlife-species.canada.ca/bird-status/oiseau-bird-eng.aspx?sY=2019&sL=e&sM=p1&sB=CMWA
  29. https://ebird.org/species/camwar
  30. https://mnbirdatlas.org/species/cape-may-warbler/
  31. https://extapps.dec.ny.gov/fs/programs/dfw/SWAP2025/Birds/Cape%20May%20warbler.pdf
  32. https://nhaudubon.org/bird-of-the-month-cape-may-warbler/
  33. https://climate2014.audubon.org/birds/camwar/cape-may-warbler
  34. https://www.usgs.gov/labs/bird-banding-laboratory/science/bird-window-collisions
  35. https://abcbirds.org/news/bird-building-collisions-study-2024
  36. https://open.alberta.ca/dataset/145f4d9d-6945-4142-89b7-13504bb76898/resource/a38521a1-1eff-4a88-80ab-84b51b344ca0/download/sar-capemaywarbler-factsheet-may2003.pdf
  37. https://www.seatoneconsulting.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Impacts-of-Climate-Change-on-Mangrove-Ecosystems-in-the-Coastal-and-Marine-Environments-of-Caribbean-Small-Island-Developing-States.pdf
  38. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/H114-11-2004E.pdf
  39. https://nationalzoo.si.edu/migratory-birds/news/how-birds-keep-our-world-safe-plagues-insects
  40. https://sprucebudwormmaine.org/docs/SBW_full_report_print.pdf
  41. https://www.pew.org/en/about/news-room/opinion/2015/11/18/good-migrants-and-good-news-from-canadas-boreal-forest
  42. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-50/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-10/subpart-B/section-10.13
  43. https://partnersinflight.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/pif-continental-plan-final-spread-7-27-16.pdf
  44. https://www.nfwf.org/programs/central-appalachia-habitat-stewardship-program
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