Hubbry Logo
Caspian gullCaspian gullMain
Open search
Caspian gull
Community hub
Caspian gull
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Caspian gull
Caspian gull
Caspian gull
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Caspian gull
Adult in summer plumage, Romania
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Charadriiformes
Family: Laridae
Genus: Larus
Species:
L. cachinnans
Binomial name
Larus cachinnans
Pallas, 1811
Range of L. cachinnans
  Breeding
  Resident
  Non-breeding

The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) is a large gull and a member of the herring and lesser black-backed gull complex. The scientific name is from Latin. Larus appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird, and cachinnans means 'laughing', from cachinnare 'to laugh'.[2]

Description

[edit]

It is a large gull at 56–68 cm (22–27 in) long, with a 137 to 155 cm (54 to 61 in) wingspan and a body mass of 680–1,590 g (1.50–3.51 lb).[3][4] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 38.5 to 48 cm (15.2 to 18.9 in), the bill is 4.6 to 6.4 cm (1.8 to 2.5 in) and the tarsus is 5.8 to 7.7 cm (2.3 to 3.0 in).[4] The Caspian gull has a long, slender bill, accentuated by the sloping forehead. The legs, wings, and neck are longer than those of the herring gull and yellow-legged gull. The eye is small and often dark, and the legs vary from pale pink to a pale yellowish colour. The back and wings are a slightly darker shade of grey than the herring gull, but slightly paler than the yellow-legged gull. The outermost primary feather has a large white tip and a white tongue running up the inner web.

First-winter birds have a pale head with dark streaking on the back of the neck. The underparts are pale and the back is greyish. The greater and median wing coverts have whitish tips forming two pale lines across the wing.

Distribution

[edit]

The Caspian gull breeds around the Black and Caspian Seas, extending eastwards across Central Asia to north-west China. In Europe, it has been spreading north and west and now breeds in Poland, eastern Germany, southern Russia and all year round in Ukraine. Some birds migrate south as far as the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, while others disperse into Western Europe, in countries such as Sweden, Norway and Denmark or the Benelux and even North of France. Small numbers are now seen regularly in Britain, especially in South-east England, East Anglia, and the Midlands.

Breeding

[edit]
Eggs, collection Museum Wiesbaden

It typically nests on flat, low-lying ground by water, unlike the yellow-legged gull, which mainly nests on cliffs in areas where the two overlap. The breeding season starts from early April. Two or three eggs are laid and incubated for 27 to 31 days.

Feeding

[edit]

They are scavengers and predators with a very varied diet. During the breeding season, they often eat rodents such as ground squirrels, flying some distance into the steppes to find them.

Classification and subspecies

[edit]

This form has a troubled taxonomic history, summarised in the herring gull article. The Caspian gull used to be treated as a subspecies of the herring gull, but it is now treated as a full species by many authorities (e.g. the British Ornithologists' Union records committee). Some authorities include the yellow-legged gull (L. michahellis) within L. cachinnans, but it is also now commonly considered to be a separate species.

The steppe gull or Baraba gull (L. (cachinnans) barabensis) may be regarded as a subspecies of the Caspian gull or as a separate species. It is also very similar genetically to its northern neighbour, the taimyrensis race of Heuglin's gull. The steppe gull breeds in Central Asia, particularly northern Kazakhstan. Its nonbreeding range is still little-known, but most are thought to winter in southwestern Asia from the Persian Gulf to northwestern India. There are possible records of this form from Hong Kong and South Korea.

The Mongolian gull (L. (vegae/cachinnans) mongolicus) may be classed as a subspecies of the Caspian gull, a subspecies of the Vega gull, or as a species in its own right. It breeds in Mongolia and the surrounding areas and migrates southeast in winter.

  • In Danube Biosphere Reserve
    In Danube Biosphere Reserve
  • juvenile
    juvenile
  • juvenile in flight
    juvenile in flight
  • immature in flight
    immature in flight

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Caspian gull

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) is a large, slender species of gull in the family Laridae, measuring 56–68 cm in length with a wingspan of 137–155 cm and a body mass of 680–1,590 g. It features a long, slim bill with a gentle curve, long thin legs that are pale pink to yellowish, a small dark eye, and grey upperparts that are slightly darker than those of the herring gull (Larus argentatus) but paler than the yellow-legged gull (Larus michahellis). Adults have white heads, necks, and underparts, with black wingtips marked by extensive white tongues on the primaries, and juveniles show a whitish head, pale underwings, and a broad black tail band. This gull attains full breeding plumage in its fourth year and is known for its lanky, elongated structure, including a flat-backed profile, attenuated rear end, and long, broad wings that project noticeably in flight. Taxonomically, the Caspian gull is recognized as a full within the genus , distinct from the closely related gull complex, though it was formerly considered a subspecies of the gull ( argentatus). However, its status as a full remains debated by some authorities, who consider it part of the gull complex due to hybridization. It belongs to the order and is monotypic, with no recognized . Genetic and morphological studies support its separation, highlighting differences in , structure, and vocalizations from similar large . The species breeds colonially, often in groups of up to 8,000 pairs, across , the , , and northwest , with its extent of occurrence spanning approximately 5,820,000 km². It is fully migratory, wintering in southwest Asia, , and northwest India, while vagrants occasionally appear in , including Britain and . In recent decades, breeding populations have expanded westward into and eastern , reflecting an overall increasing trend. Caspian gulls nest on flat, low-lying ground near lakes, rivers, steppes, or coastal areas, and in non-breeding season, they frequent ports, agricultural fields, and refuse dumps. They are omnivorous, feeding on , , carrion, and human waste, often in opportunistic behaviors. The global population size is not precisely known, but the European component is estimated at 108,000–175,000 mature individuals, and the species is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its stable to increasing numbers and wide range.

Taxonomy

Classification history

The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) was first described by in 1811 in his work Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica. The specific epithet "cachinnans" derives from the Latin word for "laughing," alluding to the ' raucous, laughter-like vocalizations. Historically, the Caspian gull was treated as a of the herring gull (Larus argentatus), specifically L. a. cachinnans, due to shared morphological traits such as size, plumage, and structure, particularly in its southeastern range. This classification persisted through much of the , with early studies emphasizing clinal variation across the herring gull complex rather than distinct boundaries. Taxonomic revisions in the early 2000s elevated the Caspian gull to full species status, driven by genetic evidence from analyses revealing distinct lineages within the L. cachinnans-fuscus group. The International Ornithological Congress (IOC) recognized the split around 2006, while the (AOS, formerly AOU) formalized it in its 48th supplement in 2007, separating it from the herring gull based on phylogenetic data. Supporting studies, such as those examining sequences, confirmed and deep genetic divergence. Ongoing debates center on species boundaries, particularly in hybridization zones where the Caspian gull overlaps with the (Larus michahellis) in southeastern Europe and the Black Sea region, and with the (Larus fuscus) in . Mixed pairings and fertile hybrids complicate delimitation, though genetic markers indicate limited . Recent AOS supplements in 2024 and 2025 have affirmed the Caspian gull's monotypic status without major revisions, aligning with broader gull complex updates that further split the herring gull but leave L. cachinnans unchanged.

Subspecies

The Caspian gull is generally treated as monotypic, with the nominal subspecies Larus cachinnans cachinnans representing the core population breeding primarily around the Caspian and Black Seas, extending to the and western . This form is characterized by a relatively pale gray mantle and elongated wings, adaptations suited to its inland and coastal habitats. A proposed subspecies, Larus cachinnans barabensis (known as the gull or Baraba gull), occurs in the steppes of , including areas around Lake Chany in and northern . It differs morphologically from the nominal form by having a slightly darker mantle, a heavier and more compact build, and shorter legs and bill, though these traits show overlap. Its taxonomic status remains debated, with some authorities regarding it as a distinct of the Caspian gull, while others synonymize it with L. cachinnans or classify it under the (Larus fuscus) due to evidence of hybridization and . Another proposed subspecies, cachinnans mongolicus (Mongolian gull), breeds in inland regions of , eastern , and northern , wintering in eastern Asia including , Korea, and southern . Adults exhibit yellower legs compared to the nominal form, while juveniles display browner upperparts and more contrasting wing patterns. Recent classifications often elevate it to full status (Larus mongolicus) based on vocal, ecological, and differences, though it was historically lumped with the Caspian gull. Genetic studies from the 2010s, including analyses of and amplified fragment length polymorphisms, indicate partial among these forms but persistent , particularly between cachinnans and barabensis, complicating clear boundaries. This evidence has led to provisional recognition in major checklists: the Handbook of the Birds of the World treats the Caspian gull as monotypic while recognizing the Mongolian gull separately, and eBird (2025 taxonomy) follows suit, listing the steppe form under the Lesser Black-backed Gull complex.

Description and identification

Physical characteristics

The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) is a large measuring 56–68 cm in length, with a of 140–150 cm and a body mass ranging from 700–1,600 g. Males average 10–15% larger than females, exhibiting minimal beyond size differences. The possesses an elongated body structure, with long wings that project noticeably beyond the tail tip when at rest, contributing to its slender, attenuated appearance. Structurally, the Caspian gull features a long, slender bill with a pronounced red gonys spot, a small dark eye set in a relatively flat crown, and long legs that vary from pale pink to yellowish. These traits emphasize its elegant proportions compared to bulkier relatives. Adult consists of a pale grey mantle and upperwing coverts, white head, neck, and underparts, and black primaries with white mirror spots on the outer feathers. In winter, fine brown streaking appears on the head and hindneck, while the breeding season shows a clean white head. Immatures exhibit brownish overall plumage with scaly patterns on the upperparts, pale fringes on the wing coverts, and a dark-streaked head; this juvenile appearance fades progressively through subadult stages, attaining full adult-like feathering over 3–4 years via annual moults.

Distinguishing features

The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) in adult plumage exhibits a slender, lanky build with long, parallel-sided bill that tapers evenly and shows minimal gonys expansion, a flat or pear-shaped crown, and a small, often dark eye that imparts a distinctive "mean" or piercing expression. Its mantle coloration is a neutral, silky grey, paler than that of the but similar in shade to the herring gull (though less bluish), typically scoring 3–6 on the Kodak Grey Scale. The legs are long and thin, usually pale yellow or whitish-pink, and the wingtip features a broad white mirror on the tenth primary (P10) with extensive pale grey tongues extending up the inner webs of P7–P10, while P5 often shows a complete black subterminal band. In juvenile and immature plumages, the Caspian gull displays a long primary projection beyond the tail, a barred or diffusely dark tail band, and overall pale sandy-brown tones on the upperparts with narrow pale fringes creating a scaly appearance on the back and scapulars. Compared to juvenile herring gulls, it has less contrasting wing patterns, with cleaner greater coverts showing a pale median bar or "piano key" notching rather than bold dark anchors, and a whiter underwing with subtle grey-brown barring. The head is contrastingly pale with a dark shawl-like streaking around the hindneck and eye, and the bill is long and dark with a pale base. Identification pitfalls arise in hybrid zones, such as those in where Caspian gulls interbreed with (Larus michahellis), producing intermediates with blended traits like variable eye color or wing patterns that defy single-feature diagnosis. Key separators include the Caspian gull's paler leg color compared to the brighter yellow legs of the yellow-legged gull, and a larger white wingtip mirror on P10 than in the herring gull, where the mirror is smaller and the black extends further. Plumage wear, sex-related variation in structure (females less attenuated), and overlap in bill length can further complicate separation from herring gulls. Aging progresses through distinct stages: first-winter birds (post-July fledging) feature a fresh, scaly-backed juvenile with extensive early moult into second-generation scapulars by , resulting in a paler, worn appearance by winter. Second-winter individuals show mottled feathers on and tertials, with a whiter head and emerging adult-like primary patterns including tongues. Third-winter birds approach adult-like features, such as a mostly mantle, reduced head streaking, and more defined wingtip markings, though full maturity may not occur until the fourth or fifth year.

Distribution and habitat

Breeding range

The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) has its core breeding range centered around the , encompassing colonies in , , and , as well as the coasts of , , and , and the basin. These areas support dense populations, with individual colonies often holding thousands of pairs, up to 8,000 or more in some sites. The species' breeding distribution extends eastward through into , , and , particularly in and semi-desert regions associated with inland lakes and rivers. Since the 1990s, the Caspian gull has undergone a significant westward expansion into , establishing breeding colonies in , , and the , driven by natal dispersal over distances of 800–1,200 km. Within its breeding range, the Caspian favors flat islands in rivers and lakes, brackish marshes with reedbeds, and lake shores in or semi-desert landscapes, often forming monospecific or mixed on grassy, shrubby, or sandy substrates. sizes typically range from 100 to 5,000 pairs, though mega- like those in the can exceed 10,000 pairs. In recently colonized European areas such as , breeding has increasingly shifted to urban rooftops, where pairs rose from 2 in 2018 to 464 by 2024, often alongside other .

Migration and winter range

The Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) is a partial migrant, with northern populations dispersing southward during autumn from September to November, while those in southern parts of the range, particularly around the Black and Caspian Seas, remain largely resident year-round. Post-breeding movements begin as early as July and continue through November, with northward return migrations occurring from mid-February to mid-June. Migration routes for western populations often follow the Black Sea coast westward, passing through the Mediterranean region en route to wintering areas. Ringing recoveries from the northern-western Azov Sea coast indicate average winter displacement distances of about 850 km (ranging from 7.5 to 2,172 km), with birds typically moving along Ukrainian Black Sea coasts to Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey, and occasional individuals reaching Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Hungary. Hybrids between Caspian and herring gulls (Larus argentatus) display intermediate migration patterns, with average displacement distances of approximately 342 km (95% : 232–471 km), which are greater than those of herring gulls but shorter than those of pure Caspian gulls (around 430–470 km). Migration directions for pure Caspian gulls are predominantly westward at 264–276°, while hybrids show slightly more southerly directions around 260°; these patterns are evident from October to March re-encounters, with distances generally decreasing with age in Caspian gulls. The primary winter range extends along the coasts of southwest Asia (for breeders), , the , and northwest . Due to ongoing range expansion, winter records have increased in central and , where the species was formerly scarce; the European wintering population is estimated at 24,300–74,000 individuals, with major concentrations in (11,000–11,100), (5,000–10,500), and (3,000–8,000, showing long-term increases of 181–1,000%). Vagrant individuals occasionally reach farther west into (e.g., , , , , and ) and northwest . Rare vagrants have also been reported in East Asia beyond the typical breeding range, such as in the , , and .

Behavior and ecology

Breeding

The Caspian gull breeds colonially but in loose aggregations on flat, open terrain near freshwater or coastal water bodies, often on islands, dikes, or gravel pits surrounded by such as reeds, willows, or grass. Nests are constructed primarily from local , including macrophytes, feathers, and debris, forming shallow scrapes with an outer diameter of approximately 47 cm, an inner diameter of 23 cm, and a depth of about 7 cm. These nests are typically spaced a few meters apart and positioned close to cover like bushes for protection. Breeding commences in mid-March to early in southern parts of the range, such as around the , and extends to early May in northern areas like , with pairs generally producing a single brood annually. Clutch size averages 2.8–3.0 eggs per pair, which measure about 76–84 cm³ in volume, with the third (C-) egg typically smaller than the first two. Both parents share incubation duties, lasting 27–31 days, after which the precocial chicks hatch and leave the nest shortly thereafter. Parental care is biparental, with adults feeding and guarding the chicks, which at 35–42 days old but remain dependent for several weeks longer. Hatching success ranges from 53–95%, though chick mortality is high due to predation by mammals such as foxes and avian predators. Breeding success varies by ; urban breeders, particularly on rooftops in Polish cities, exhibit higher success attributed to reduced predation and access to anthropogenic food sources. In , rooftop breeding in cities has rapidly increased, from 2 pairs in 2018 to approximately 464 pairs by 2024, often alongside herring gulls.

Foraging and diet

The Caspian gull exhibits an opportunistic diet, primarily consisting of , such as and molluscs, small mammals including voles and ground squirrels, reptiles, bird eggs and chicks, carrion, , and human refuse. In inland breeding areas of , comprise the dominant component at 57–82% of the diet based on discarded food items and pellets, with refuse accounting for 9–26%, and smaller proportions of mammals, birds, , and plants. Around the , rodents such as susliks ( spp., up to 140 g) form a primary prey item during the breeding season, with gulls traveling into surrounding steppes to hunt them. Foraging occurs diurnally, often in flocks, and employs a range of methods including surface dipping and shallow dives for in rivers, fishponds, and gravel pits; by stealing food from conspecifics or other birds; and scavenging at refuse dumps and ports. Adults demonstrate higher success rates in fishing (e.g., 61% successful dives) and (61% success) compared to juveniles, who achieve better proportional success in digging for refuse but overall lower efficiency. The plays an ecological role in controlling populations in habitats through predation during breeding, while its scavenging behavior contributes to nutrient cycling in coastal and inland areas. to urban environments has increased reliance on anthropogenic food sources, such as landfills, particularly in pre-breeding and non-breeding periods, supporting inland . Dietary preferences vary by age and season, with adults being more piscivorous and juveniles relying more on scavenging refuse. During breeding, shifts toward fishponds and hunting small mammals like , peaking in the chick-rearing stage, while pre-breeding emphasizes refuse dumps and incubation involves more varied sites including gravel pits. Inland populations show a seasonal transition to greater terrestrial prey, reducing dependence on .

Conservation

Population status

The global population size of the Caspian gull (Larus cachinnans) remains unknown due to ongoing taxonomic uncertainties and limited surveys across its extensive range, though estimates for the European breeding suggest 115,000–200,000 pairs, corresponding to approximately 230,000–400,000 mature individuals. These figures are derived from national censuses and EU Article 12 reporting under the Birds Directive, with significant concentrations in (55,000–100,000 pairs) and (30,000–50,000 pairs). The is classified as Least Concern on the , with the most recent assessment in 2018 confirming no change as of 2025; this status reflects its large extent of of approximately 5,820,000 km² and of stable to increasing trends in monitored regions. In , breeding numbers have shown overall increases, such as 40–100% growth in and 30–50% in between 2007 and 2018, though wintering populations exhibit mixed trends with some localized declines (e.g., -17% to -9% in ). The large range and lack of for rapid declines prevent qualification under IUCN criteria for higher threat categories. Population monitoring primarily occurs through European breeding bird atlases (e.g., EBBA2) and coordinated national surveys by BirdLife partners, which track distribution and abundance but highlight challenges in the core Asian range due to sparse data. Overall trends appear stable with regional variations, including expansions in offsetting any potential stability in central Asian breeding grounds. The Caspian gull faces several threats across its range, primarily in its core breeding areas around the Caspian and Black Seas. In , habitat loss due to wetland drainage has reduced available breeding sites, with global wetlands reduced by about 20% since 1700, impacting colonial nesting grounds. , including oil spills in the , poses risks to foraging and breeding populations, though impacts on overall numbers remain minimal. Human disturbance at colonies, such as egg raiding and hunting in , further exacerbates vulnerability during the breeding season. In , where the species is expanding, hybridization with the (Larus argentatus) is increasingly common in overlap zones, potentially diluting genetic purity and complicating identification. Despite these pressures, the global population of the Caspian gull is increasing, classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to its large range and adaptability. This growth is driven by urban adaptation, particularly in Europe; for instance, in Poland, rooftop breeding pairs surged from 2 in 2018 to 464 in 2024, often alongside herring gulls, providing safer nesting away from ground predators. The species has also undergone rapid westward expansion across Europe, covering over 2,500 km since the late 20th century, with the first confirmed breeding in the Netherlands in 2012 and now exceeding 100 pairs there, and in Germany over 10,000 pairs as of 2024. European population estimates stand at 115,000–200,000 breeding pairs (230,000–400,000 mature individuals), reflecting ongoing colonization of rivers and urban areas. Conservation efforts focus on habitat protection and monitoring rather than targeted recovery programs, given the species' stable status. Key breeding sites around the are safeguarded within Ramsar-designated wetlands, which support colonial waterbirds including the Caspian gull. In Europe, the species benefits from general protection under the EU Birds Directive, ensuring monitoring through Special Protection Areas and Important Bird Areas, with 354 such sites identified. These measures help mitigate disturbance and while allowing natural expansion. Looking ahead, may drive further northward range shifts, as observed in other large responding to warming temperatures by altering migration and breeding distributions. Continued urban growth could bolster populations through new nesting opportunities but may heighten conflicts, such as at where pose aviation risks. Overall, the ' resilience suggests sustained increases, provided wetland protections persist.

References

  1. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/7009/Caspian_Gull
  2. https://gull-research.org/cachinnans/01cyaug.html
  3. https://ebird.org/species/casgul2
  4. https://www.birdguides.com/articles/what-is-a-caspian-gull/
  5. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=93CA037F6FFE9FDB
  6. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/caspian-gull-larus-cachinnans
  7. https://animalia.bio/caspian-gull
  8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11742547/
  9. https://americanornithology.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/NACC_Supplements_2000_2023.pdf
  10. https://gull-research.org/cachinnans/01holland09.html
  11. https://americanornithology.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/2025-C.pdf
  12. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/casgul2/cur/introduction
  13. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.casgul2.01
  14. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=AB79F65F8585431E
  15. https://gull-research.org/barabensis/05cyjuly.html
  16. https://ebird.org/species/casgul3
  17. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/casgul4/cur/introduction
  18. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.casgul4.01
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289862418_Genetic_relationships_among_the_different_races_of_Herring_Gull_Yellow-legged_Gull_and_lesser_Black-backed_Gull
  20. https://ebird.org/news/2025-taxonomy-update
  21. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10144-013-0429-7
  22. https://gull-research.org/papers/papers5/Caspian-Gulls-part-1.pdf
  23. https://gull-research.org/cachinnans/05cysept.html
  24. https://gull-research.org/cachinnans/03cysept.html
  25. https://cdnfiles1.biolovision.net/www.faune-france.org/userfiles/FauneFrance/FFCartes/Caspian-Gulls-part-2.pdf
  26. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352018869_Breeding-range_expansion_of_the_Caspian_Gull_in_Europe
  27. https://gull-research.org/cachinnans/01holland02.html
  28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292888056_The_origin_of_%27Caspian_Gulls%27_breeding_in_Poland
  29. https://www.oiseaux.net/birds/caspian.gull.html
  30. https://britishbirds.co.uk/journal/article/rapid-increase-caspian-gulls-breeding-rooftops-polish-cities
  31. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322603659_The_seasonal_placement_of_the_Caspian_Gull_Larus_cachinnans_from_the_Northern-Western_Coast_of_the_Azov_Sea_based_on_ringing_results
  32. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-77476-6
  33. https://birdlifedata.blob.core.windows.net/sub-global/32603_larus_cachinnans.pdf
  34. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281129716_Reproductive_Parameters_of_Caspian_Gull_Larus_cachinnans_Pallas_1811_in_Different_Habitats_Nearby_and_Away_Fish_Ponds
  35. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392397981_Rapid_increase_of_Caspian_Gulls_breeding_on_rooftops_in_Polish_cities
  36. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232062242_Diet_composition_of_the_Caspian_Gull_Larus_cachinnans_in_inland_Poland_Effects_of_breeding_area_breeding_stage_and_sympatric_breeding_with_the_Herring_Gull_Larus_argentatus
  37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10336-007-0208-3
  38. https://smartwatermagazine.com/blogs/christian-dunn/earth-has-lost-one-fifth-its-wetlands-1700-most-could-still-be-saved
  39. https://gull-research.org/cachinnans/01holland03.html
  40. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2312438121
  41. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723073904
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.