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Suaeda maritima
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Suaeda maritima
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Amaranthaceae
Genus: Suaeda
Species:
S. maritima
Binomial name
Suaeda maritima
Synonyms[1]
List
    • Atriplex maritima (L.) Crantz
    • Chenopodina aestuaria Dumort.
    • Chenopodina bacciformis Dumort.
    • Chenopodina filiformis Moq.
    • Chenopodina maritima (L.) Moq.
    • Chenopodina maritima var. erecta Moq.
    • Chenopodina sativa Moq.
    • Chenopodina spicata Moq.
    • Chenopodina tortuosa Moq.
    • Chenopodium filiforme Dumort.
    • Chenopodium hostii Ledeb.
    • Chenopodium jacquinii Ten.
    • Chenopodium macrocarpum Desv.
    • Chenopodium maritimum L.
    • Chenopodium spicatum Schult.
    • Cochliospermum cavanillesii Lag.
    • Dondia fernaldii Standl.
    • Dondia maritima (L.) Druce
    • Dondia richii (Fernald) A.Heller
    • Kochia sedoides (L.) Schrad.
    • Lerchia maritima (L.) Kuntze
    • Salsola carnosa Moq.
    • Salsola chenopodiana Moq.
    • Salsola hostii Tratt.
    • Salsola indica Willd.
    • Salsola marina Moq.
    • Salsola maritima (L.) M.Bieb.
    • Salsola scabra Moq.
    • Salsola sedoides L.
    • Salsola strobilifera Moq.
    • Salsola succulenta Moq.
    • Schoberia crassifolia Steud.
    • Schoberia indica (Willd.) Kostel.
    • Schoberia macrocarpa C.A.Mey.
    • Schoberia maritima (L.) C.A.Mey.
    • Suaeda aestuaria Dumort.
    • Suaeda albescens Lázaro Ibiza
    • Suaeda bacciformis Dumort.
    • Suaeda cavanillesiana (Lázaro Ibiza) Cout.
    • Suaeda fernaldii (Standl.) Standl.
    • Suaeda filiformis Dumort.
    • Suaeda indica (Willd.) Moq.
    • Suaeda jacquinii Dumort.
    • Suaeda littoralis Grecescu
    • Suaeda macrocarpa Moq.
    • Suaeda maritima var. aestuaria (Dumort.) P.D.Sell
    • Suaeda maritima var. bacciformis (Dumort.) P.D.Sell
    • Suaeda maritima var. erecta (Moq.) P.D.Sell
    • Suaeda maritima var. purpurascens P.D.Sell
    • Suaeda richii Fernald
    • Suaeda tortuosa Moq.

Suaeda maritima is a species of flowering plant in the family Amaranthaceae known by the common names herbaceous seepweed[2] and annual seablite.

Description

[edit]

It is a yellow-green shrub with fleshy, succulent leaves and green flowers. It grows to about 35 cm (14 in) in salt marshes.[3] It is edible as a leaf vegetable, and due to its high salt content it can be used in combination with other foods as a seasoning. It is found worldwide,[4] but in North America it is primarily located on the northern east coast: in New England, S. maritima ssp. maritima is introduced, while the native species is S. maritima ssp. richii. The native New England species is on endangered rare plant lists in Massachusetts (rare) and Maine, New Hampshire and Rhode Island (extremely rare, S1), subject to protection and prohibition from disturbance.[4]

Habitat

[edit]

This plant resides in aquatic, terrestrial, and wetland habitats.[5] But mainly in salt marshes and sea shores, usually below the high water mark. Additionally, Suaeda maritima is able to catch mud and help build up the marshes.[6]

Development

[edit]

The leaves are simple and arranged alternatively, with one leaf per node along the stem. Their leaves also absorb large amounts of salt and will turn red when oversaturated.[6][7] The flower can be either radially symmetrical or bilaterally symmetrical.

Life cycle

[edit]

The life cycle of Suaeda maritima is known to be mainly annually. This plant will perform its entire life cycle from seed to flower then back to a seed within a single growing season. All roots, stems and leaves of the Suaeda maritima plant will die and the only thing that can bridge the gap between each generation is a dormant seed.

Medicine

[edit]

There are currently no known medical sources that the Suaeda maritima plant is used for.

Food

[edit]

As cited earlier, this plant may be subject to protection and prohibition from harvest or disturbance.[4] The young leaves of sea blite can be consumed raw or cooked,[8] although it has a strong salty flavor. The seeds are also consumable raw or cooked.

The ashes of the sea blite have been used to create a material used in making soap and glass.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Suaeda maritima

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Suaeda maritima is an in the family , commonly known as herbaceous seepweed, annual seablite, or white sea-blite, characterized by its prostrate to erect, or green stems that form mats up to 10 dm tall, linear leaves 10–50 mm long, and small bisexual flowers in dense glomerules. The plant often turns reddish with age, particularly in dense populations, and produces lenticular seeds 1–2.2 mm in diameter that exhibit dimorphism, aiding its adaptation to variable saline conditions. This polymorphous species thrives in coastal salt marshes, intertidal mud- and sand-flats, open saline loamy flats, and behind mangroves, typically at elevations of 0–10 m, where it acts as an early colonizer of disturbed saline habitats. It is widely distributed across , , Africa, (from to and introduced in parts of the Atlantic coast), and the Pacific Islands including and , with both native and naturalized populations. In , subspecies such as S. m. ssp. maritima are often considered European introductions. Ecologically, Suaeda maritima is a halophyte with high salt tolerance, utilizing sodium ions as osmolytes for osmotic adjustment, accumulating betacyanins to combat oxidative stress, and demonstrating succulence to dilute toxic ion concentrations in saline soils with electrical conductivity up to 18 dS m⁻¹. It flowers from late summer to fall, reproduces via wind-pollinated flowers and dimorphic seeds that enhance survival in fluctuating environments, and frequently associates with species like Salicornia in high-salinity zones (>18 ppt). These adaptations enable it to rapidly dominate post-disturbance sites in coastal ecosystems, contributing to biodiversity in wetland habitats.

Taxonomy

Classification

Suaeda maritima is classified in the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Caryophyllales, family Amaranthaceae, genus Suaeda, and species S. maritima. This placement aligns with the APG IV system, which merges the former Chenopodiaceae into Amaranthaceae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus as Chenopodium maritimum in his 1753 work Species Plantarum. It was later reclassified in the genus Suaeda as S. maritima by Belgian botanist Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier in his 1827 Flore Belgique. The genus Suaeda comprises approximately 80–100 species of primarily halophytic plants distributed worldwide, belonging to the subfamily Suaedoideae within Amaranthaceae.

Synonyms and Subspecies

Suaeda maritima has several historical synonyms reflecting its reclassification within the Chenopodiaceae (now Amaranthaceae), including Chenopodium maritimum L., Salsola maritima (L.) Dumort., Chenopodina aestuaria Dumort., Dondia maritima (L.) Druce.. Common names for the species include herbaceous seepweed, annual seablite, and white seablite, with regional variations such as herbaceous sea-blite in parts of and sea blite in .. Two subspecies are recognized: S. maritima subsp. maritima, which is widespread across , , and Africa and often introduced in with seeds 1.5–2 mm in diameter and chromosome number 2n=36; and S. maritima subsp. richii (Fernald) Bassett & Crompton, native to eastern from Newfoundland to , characterized by smaller seeds (1–1.5 mm), procumbent mat-forming , and chromosome number 2n=18.. The species exhibits significant polymorphism, contributing to taxonomic debates over infraspecific variation and regional ; for instance, subsp. richii is considered rare outside its core Atlantic coastal range, particularly in where it occurs sporadically in salt marshes..

Description

Morphology

Suaeda maritima is an annual that exhibits an erect or sprawling growth habit, typically reaching heights of 10–60 cm, though it can form mats or clumps up to 100 cm in some conditions. The stems are succulent and fleshy, initially green but often turning reddish or purplish in autumn due to the accumulation of betacyanin pigments, which provide a distinctive coloration to mature plants. The leaves are simple, alternate, and sessile, with a cylindrical or semi-terete shape that contributes to their succulent nature. They measure 10–50 mm in length and 0.8–2 mm in width, are glabrous, and often develop a hue when mature, again attributable to betacyanin pigments. These leaves are adapted for , enhancing the plant's resilience in saline environments through their fleshy texture. Flowers are small and inconspicuous, measuring 2–3 mm in , and are typically , forming clusters of 1–5 in axillary along the upper stems. Each flower is bisexual with five fleshy sepals that form a cup-like , and they are sessile and hypogynous. The fruits are utricles, dry and indehiscent, enclosing a single black, lens-shaped approximately 1–2.2 mm in size with a reticulate seed coat. The consists of fibrous that are shallow but extensive, forming a network suited to the upper layers of saline soils where they provide anchorage and facilitate nutrient uptake in marshy habitats.

Physiological Adaptations

Suaeda maritima, a euhalophyte, exhibits several halophytic traits that facilitate survival in saline environments. Its leaves are succulent, enabling water storage and dilution of accumulated ions to maintain cellular turgor without compromising metabolic functions. Unlike some halophytes with salt-excreting glands or bladders, S. maritima primarily accumulates excess salts intracellularly, compartmentalizing sodium ions (Na⁺) into vacuoles via transporters such as Na⁺/H⁺ antiporters (NHX1) to prevent cytoplasmic toxicity. Additionally, it synthesizes and accumulates organic osmolytes, including and betaine, which contribute to osmotic adjustment by balancing external without disrupting enzyme activity; for instance, glycine betaine levels can reach over 25 mM per kg fresh weight under 400 mM NaCl stress. In response to elevated , S. maritima actively absorbs Na⁺ through low-affinity uptake pathways in the roots, including a high-affinity K⁺ transporter at low salinity (e.g., 25 mM NaCl) and an AKT1-type channel at higher levels (e.g., 150 mM NaCl), followed by to shoots for osmotic . This influx maintains a favorable Na⁺/K⁺ ratio, with shoot Na⁺ concentrations increasing significantly under stress while K⁺ levels are preserved via selective uptake. As salt saturation occurs, leaves turn red due to the accumulation of betacyanins, pigments that serve as antioxidants and osmoprotectants, signaling physiological adjustment to extreme conditions. The species demonstrates robust salt tolerance, sustaining growth up to 500 mM NaCl, with optimal performance between 200 and 400 mM. Photosynthetically, S. maritima employs a C3 pathway, lacking the Kranz anatomy typical of C4 plants, yet it maintains efficiency under saline stress through adaptive adjustments in content and photosynthetic rates, which peak at intermediate salinities (e.g., 200–400 mM NaCl) before declining at higher levels due to stomatal limitations. This pathway supports carbon fixation in hypoxic, saline soils by optimizing CO₂ assimilation without the specialized bundle sheath cells found in C4 relatives within the genus. To counter induced by salinity-generated (ROS), S. maritima upregulates antioxidant enzymes, including (), (), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), which scavenge ROS and protect cellular components like membranes and proteins. For example, activity increases under NaCl stress to convert radicals to less harmful forms, while genes such as SsCAT1 and SsAPX are transcriptionally activated, enhancing overall resilience. These responses, combined with osmolyte-mediated stabilization, enable the plant to mitigate and maintain metabolic integrity in high-salinity habitats.

Habitat and Distribution

Preferred Habitats

Suaeda maritima thrives in saline, poorly drained soils characteristic of coastal salt marshes, tidal flats, and the fringes of coastal dunes, where it encounters high concentrations often exceeding 200 mM. This exhibits strong tolerance to periodic inundation, enduring hypoxic conditions in waterlogged sediments up to the levels of high spring tides in the , which supports its adaptation to brackish and saltwater environments. As a , S. maritima plays a key role in stabilizing nascent surfaces by trapping suspended sediments during tidal flows, thereby facilitating accretion and the development of more mature halophytic communities. It commonly associates with other salt-tolerant plants such as Spartina alterniflora and Salicornia species in these dynamic ecosystems, contributing to the overall structure of high and low zones. The plant prefers temperate to subtropical climates with full sun exposure and mild temperatures ranging from 10°C to 25°C for optimal growth, while tolerating a between 6.5 and 8.5 in alkaline, saline conditions. In its habitats, S. maritima faces threats from accelerated sea-level rise, which can exacerbate inundation and alter dynamics, as well as changes in from human interventions; however, it demonstrates resilience to grazing pressure, which may even enhance stability by reducing and .

Global Distribution

Suaeda maritima is native to , encompassing , from to , , , and extending eastward to temperate regions of including Indo-China. In the , it is widespread across coastal and inland saline habitats from , including the and , to . Additionally, the subspecies S. maritima ssp. richii is native to eastern , occurring along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland and southward to . The nominate subspecies, S. maritima ssp. maritima, has been introduced to , where it is established along the eastern seaboard from and to , with scattered populations extending southward to and along the Gulf Coast. This introduction likely occurred through natural dispersal mechanisms, as the species' fruits and seeds are adapted for long-distance transport by floating on water or adhering to birds. It has also been introduced to , primarily in , and to parts of , though its status in the latter remains debated with some populations possibly representing distinct varieties. It is also naturalized in the Pacific Islands, including and . In its native European range, Suaeda maritima is abundant and commonly encountered in salt marshes, such as those in the United Kingdom, where it frequently colonizes intertidal mudflats and lower marsh zones alongside species like Salicornia. In contrast, populations in North America are less common overall; the introduced ssp. maritima persists in disturbed saline sites but does not dominate, while the native ssp. richii is rarer and considered vulnerable globally, with state-level conservation listings as endangered or threatened in Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island due to habitat loss and limited distribution.

Life Cycle and Reproduction

Development Stages

Suaeda maritima, an annual , initiates its development with seed typically occurring in spring, from late to in temperate regions such as the . This follows a period of approximately five months, spanning late to late , during which seeds endure saline, waterlogged, hypoxic, and conditions (soil temperatures below 15°C) in coastal environments. requires stratification to break and is triggered by rising temperatures of at least 15°C, with optimal rates at around 20°C; low enhances percentage , though seeds tolerate up to 600 mM NaCl. emergence begins about six days after under suitable conditions, with the majority completing within 7 to 14 days, often in a single flush lasting 2 to 3 weeks when is minimal. Following , the vegetative growth phase dominates the summer period, characterized by rapid stem elongation and production as the establishes and expands. Seedlings transition to active growth within 2 to 3 weeks of establishment, reaching full —typically 30 to 100 cm—by mid-season through prostrate to ascending stems that form dense mats in saline habitats. accumulation accelerates under moderate (e.g., 200 mM NaCl), where growth rates are higher compared to non-saline conditions, reflecting the 's as a that allocates resources primarily to succulent leaves and stems for osmotic adjustment. This phase lasts several months, with the overall active growth spanning to in temperate zones, though total vegetative development is compressed to support the annual cycle. As autumn approaches, Suaeda maritima enters , marked by dieback and reddening of stems to purplish-red hues, signaling the shift of remaining toward reproductive structures like flowering, which begins in late summer. The plant completes its life cycle within 3 to 6 months from to maturity, varying by and local conditions; in temperate areas, this aligns with the growing season's end by . Environmental factors significantly influence duration: elevated promotes faster overall growth and shorter cycles by enhancing , while or early frost can truncate development and reduce .

Reproduction

Suaeda maritima exhibits hermaphroditic flowers arranged in dense axillary inflorescences, typically containing 9–18 flowers per leaf axil. Flowering occurs from to October in temperate regions, aligning with late summer to autumn conditions that favor reproductive development in environments. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, with a single per flower, and display protogynous dichogamy, where the pistillate phase precedes the staminate phase, reducing . This temporal separation promotes despite the species being self-compatible. Pollination in S. maritima is primarily , relying on for transfer, particularly in higher zones where air currents facilitate dispersal. The flowers produce substantial , averaging 19,090 grains per flower, supporting effective -mediated . In lower areas, currents may assist in movement, while occasional visitors, such as bees, wasps, and flies, contribute to entomophilous by foraging on and , though this is secondary to . The mixed enhances reproductive assurance in variable coastal habitats. Seed production is characterized by high , with open-pollinated achieving fruit set rates of 93–95%, resulting in up to approximately 140 per under optimal conditions in low marsh populations. are dimorphic, consisting of black (larger, physiologically dormant, higher tolerance during ) and brown (smaller, non-dormant, faster germinating) lenticular types, 1–2.2 mm in diameter, with a reddish-brown or black reticulate coat; this bet-hedging strategy promotes persistence in fluctuating environments. As an annual species, S. maritima relies entirely on , lacking clonal propagation. enter a period of about 5 months post-dispersal, typically from late to late March, during which fluctuating environmental conditions—including , hydration, and influenced by tidal cycles—break to synchronize with spring tides. Dispersal mechanisms in S. maritima include hydrochory, where buoyant fruits and seeds float on tidal waters, enabling spread across salt marshes and coastal areas. The entire plant may break off and tumble, shedding diaspores as it rolls. Zoochory via birds also occurs, with waterfowl like great cormorants facilitating secondary dispersal of intact seeds over longer distances. These strategies contribute to the species' transient , with limited long-term persistence due to high rates upon favorable conditions, though some viability can extend under controlled storage.

Uses

Food

Suaeda maritima young leaves and shoots are the primary edible parts, consumed raw in salads or cooked as greens, offering a pleasant salty flavor reminiscent of spinach. The seeds can also be eaten raw or ground into flour for use in baking or as a mush. Nutritionally, the leaves are rich in minerals including sodium, potassium, calcium, and iron, as well as vitamins A, C, and E; for instance, vitamin C content can reach up to 249.6 mg/100 g in dried samples, while vitamin A levels exceed 9000 µg/100 g in fresh leaves. The seeds provide substantial lipids, approximately 20% oil content rich in unsaturated fatty acids, and protein levels up to approximately 27% in related species within the genus. In traditional culinary practices, S. maritima is utilized in coastal , including , , and the Basque region, where it serves as a or flavoring agent, and in , particularly , featured in dishes like seablite , with crabs, and scalded preparations with chili paste. Historically, the ashes of burned plants have been employed as a soda source for production or as a due to their high content. Preparation methods often involve or the leaves for 5 minutes in with added sugar to mitigate excessive saltiness, enhancing for salads or soups; harvesting during the rainy season yields less saline plants.

In traditional Thai medicine, the roots of Suaeda maritima are used to treat diseases, alleviate allergic symptoms, and heal abscesses. Folk medicinal practices in various regions also employ the plant for ailments, , and snake bites. The extracted from the plant has been traditionally applied for treatment, leveraging its reported hepatoprotective properties. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated antioxidant activity in S. maritima extracts, particularly through radical scavenging assays, attributed to polyphenolic constituents. effects are evident in extracts, which inhibit production in LPS-stimulated macrophages at concentrations comparable to . The plant exhibits antiviral and hepatoprotective potential, with leaf extracts protecting against hepatitis-induced liver damage in models. Antibacterial activity targets pathogens such as and , with inhibition zones ranging from 7 to 12 mm in crude extracts. Antidiabetic effects include α-glucosidase inhibition by extracts, supporting its role in managing postprandial . Bioactive compounds in S. maritima include , alkaloids, , and glycosides, identified in root and leaf extracts through screening. Betacyanins contribute to its pigmentation and antioxidant profile, though primarily studied in related Suaeda species under stress conditions. In vitro studies from 2020 to 2024 reveal cytotoxicity of methanol and sequential extracts against lines, including lung and breast cancers, with values indicating potent antiproliferative effects. Research on S. maritima remains predominantly , with limited clinical trials to validate efficacy and safety. A 2024 study highlights its potential in skin treatments, as root extracts promote , reduce , and enhance activity for anti-aging applications.

References

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