Hubbry Logo
ZhenjinZhenjinMain
Open search
Zhenjin
Community hub
Zhenjin
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Zhenjin
Zhenjin
Zhenjin
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Zhenjin (Mongolian: Чингим, ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠮ; Chinese: 真金; pinyin: Zhēnjīn; July 8, 1243[1] – 1285[2] or January 5, 1286), also rendered as Jingim, Chinkim, or Chingkim, was a crown prince of the Yuan dynasty of China. He was a son of Kublai Khan (Emperor Shizu) and grandson of Tolui. He was posthumously honored as an emperor by his son, Temür Khan (Emperor Chengzong).

Key Information

Life

[edit]

He was born as the second son to Kublai Khan and first to Chabi Khatun. The Chinese Zen Buddhist monk Haiyun gave him the name Zhenjin ("True Gold") when he was born in 1243.[3] He was created Prince of Yan (燕王), became the head of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) by his father in 1262,[3] and was designated as the Crown Prince (皇太子) of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1273.[4]

He was known as a strong supporter of Confucianism, having been tutored by Han scholars such as Yao Shu (1203–1280), Dou Mo (1196–1280), Liu Bingzhong (1216–1274) and Wang Xun. Among others, he was noted to have studied Classic of Poetry and Classic of Filial Piety.[5] After the death of Zhenjin's rival Ahmad Fanakati (according to Rashid al-Din, as a result of a plot by Zhenjin),[6] a Confucian-trained official in the South even proposed Kublai abdicate in favor of Zhenjin in 1285, as a result Kublai was furious. He was also known to be a friend of Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, who wrote the famous treatise "Explanation of the knowable" for Zhenjin.[7]

According to the History of Yuan, he died of alcoholism on 5 January 1286, eight years before his father Kublai Khan. However, it may not have been as simple as merely drinking too much. It is also stated that shortly before his death, some ministers of the court wanted to propose that Kublai Khan abdicate his throne to Prince Zhenjin on account of old age and because Zhenjin was highly respected throughout the empire. However, Zhenjin tried to prevent this from happening. Unfortunately, Kublai Khan found out anyway and was furious, which terrified Zhenjin and may have led him to overdrink.[8][3] Distressed by his death, Kublai Khan made Zhenjin's son Temür the new Crown Prince. He was posthumously renamed as Taizi Mingxiao by Kublai on 25 February 1293. Temür gave him posthumous name Emperor Wenhui Mingxiao (文惠明孝皇帝) and temple name Yuzong (Chinese: 裕宗; lit. 'Affluent Ancestor') on 3 June 1294.

Family

[edit]

He had a senior wife and a concubine:

  • Empress Huirenyusheng, of the Hongjila clanfrom Khongirad tribe (徽仁裕聖皇后 弘吉剌氏, d.1300), personal name Kökejin (阔阔真)
  • Concubine Anchinmishi (安真迷失妃子)
  • Unknown concubine
    • Qutadmish, Grand Princess of Qi (赵国公主忽答迭迷失), 1st daughter
      • married to Körgüz from Öngüds, son of Ay Buqa, Prince of Zhao (趙王) and Yuelie ( older sister of Zhenjin)[9]
    • Nangabula, Grand Princess of Lu (鲁国公主喃哥不剌), 2nd daughter
      • married to Manzitai from Khongirad clan, Prince of Lu
    • Princess Budagan (不独感), 3rd daughter

Ancestry

[edit]
[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Zhenjin

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Zhenjin (c. 1243–1286), also known as Jingim, was a Mongol prince and the designated of the , serving as the second son of , founder of the dynasty and grandson of . Groomed from a young age for imperial rule, he received a rigorous blending traditional Mongol warrior ethos with Confucian principles of governance, beginning under the scholar Yao Shu in 1251, to prepare him for administering the vast Yuan realm that spanned and beyond. As , Zhenjin assumed significant administrative and military responsibilities, overseeing the Secretariat and participating in key diplomatic efforts, such as a 1271 to Almalikh to counter the rebellion of Khaidu in , thereby extending Kublai's authority amid ongoing Mongol factional strife. He clashed with the corrupt minister , reflecting internal power dynamics, while admiring competent officers like Zui Pin, and contributed to the stabilization of Yuan rule in through his handling of governance affairs. His premature death in 1285 or 1286—attributed to illness or overwork, with some accounts suggesting possible poisoning—preceded Kublai's by eight years, precipitating a that elevated Zhenjin's son Temür to the throne in 1294, though this shift fostered factionalism and hastened the dynasty's long-term instability.

Early Life

Birth and Family Background

Zhenjin was born in 1243 in as the second son of and his principal consort of the Khunggirad clan. (1215–1294), fourth son of and grandson of , rose to lead the Mongol Empire's eastern branches and founded the in 1271 after defeating the Southern Song. , who died in 1281, wielded significant influence in the imperial court, advising on administrative matters and promoting Confucian and Buddhist policies amid the ' conquests. As part of the lineage, Zhenjin's early life reflected the nomadic Mongol aristocracy's transition toward sedentary rule in , with his family overseeing vast territories from the steppes to the . His father's court integrated Mongol traditions with Chinese , setting the stage for Zhenjin's later roles, though details of his immediate siblings remain sparse in historical records, with Kublai having multiple sons including Manggala and Nomuqan.

Education and Influences

Zhenjin received his education primarily from prominent Chinese scholars, who imparted knowledge of Chinese customs, traditions, and literary , enabling him to speak Chinese fluently and engage deeply with Confucian texts. This training aligned with Kublai Khan's broader policies of , emphasizing administrative competence and for Mongol elites ruling over Chinese subjects. A key influence was , which Zhenjin embraced as a framework for governance, advocating moderation in taxation and restraint against shamanistic excesses at court—positions that contrasted with some of Kublai's later fiscal policies. His commitment to Confucian ideals manifested in administrative roles, such as heading the Central Secretariat from 1273, where he prioritized scholarly counsel over purely nomadic traditions. Early Buddhist exposure came via his naming in 1243 by the North Chinese monk Haiyun, who selected "Zhenjin" (True ) to signify purity and virtue, reflecting the eclectic religious milieu of the Yuan court under Kublai's patronage. While Mongol princely upbringing likely included skills like and horsemanship, verifiable records emphasize scholarly and Confucian formation as dominant, preparing him for imperial succession designated in 1273.

Administrative and Political Career

Appointment as Crown Prince

In 1273, Kublai Khan formally designated his son Zhenjin as (皇太子, Huáng tài zǐ) of the , marking a key step in establishing a structured imperial succession. This occurred two years after Kublai's proclamation of the in 1271, as he adapted Mongol khanal traditions to Chinese imperial models, including the explicit naming of an heir to ensure administrative continuity amid ongoing conquests against the Southern Song. Zhenjin, born in 1243 and the second surviving son of Kublai, had been educated in Confucian classics and demonstrated administrative aptitude, which positioned him as a suitable candidate for bridging Mongol military ethos with sedentary governance. Upon his appointment, Zhenjin was simultaneously elevated to head the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng), the paramount bureaucratic organ responsible for policy formulation and imperial edicts, granting him direct oversight of civil administration. His role emphasized Kublai's strategy of delegating routine governance to trusted kin while retaining ultimate authority, particularly as military campaigns strained resources. Zhenjin's advocacy for Confucian reforms further aligned with this Sinicization effort, though primary motivations for the appointment centered on stabilizing the fledgling dynasty's leadership amid internal Mongol rivalries and external pressures. The designation underscored Zhenjin's prominence over other potential heirs, such as younger brothers, but did not preclude future dynastic frictions; it nonetheless provided a framework for Yuan legitimacy until Zhenjin's untimely death in 1286.

Roles in Yuan Governance

Zhenjin, designated in 1273, assumed the position of head of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng), the Yuan dynasty's chief executive body responsible for civil administration, policy formulation, and oversight of provincial branches. In this role, he exercised significant influence over bureaucratic operations, drawing on his in Confucian and fluency in Chinese, which oriented his approach toward ethical governance and integration of Han administrative traditions. Zhenjin's tenure emphasized rectifying abuses within the fiscal system, particularly targeting the policies of , the director-general of the Secretariat for State Finance appointed in 1263. He vehemently opposed Ahmad's methods, which included aggressive tax collection to finance military expeditions, alongside documented , , and favoritism toward Muslim associates. Zhenjin allied with officials such as Cui Bin to advocate for Ahmad's dismissal, reflecting his commitment to Confucian moral standards over expediency. These efforts intensified after Cui Bin's execution in 1280, amid broader accusations of . Ahmad's in 1282, followed by Kublai Khan's commission of an investigation that confirmed irregularities, marked a partial vindication of Zhenjin's stance, though it exacerbated tensions with his father, who had relied on Ahmad's revenue strategies. Zhenjin's interventions thus highlighted internal debates within Yuan leadership between short-term fiscal imperatives and long-term administrative integrity, though primary sources like the Yuanshi portray his positions as principled rather than factional.

Key Policies and Reforms

Zhenjin, designated in 1273, advocated for the integration of Confucian principles into Yuan governance, distinguishing himself from the more nomadic and shamanistic traditions prevalent among Mongol elites. Raised under the tutelage of Confucian scholars, he emphasized ethical administration, ritual propriety, and the moral imperatives of rulership as outlined in texts, influencing Kublai Khan's policies toward greater in . A primary focus of Zhenjin's administrative involvement was the promotion and preservation of Confucian rituals and , particularly during Kublai's later years when the grew disillusioned with orthodox Chinese influences. He forged alliances with southern Confucian custodians, such as Kong Zhu, to uphold hereditary guardianship of rituals in , countering tendencies toward fiscal extravagance and military overextension by prioritizing stable, virtue-based . Zhenjin's efforts contributed to reforms in governmental , including the endorsement of Confucian-trained officials who proposed measures aligning Mongol rule with traditional Chinese legitimacy, though such advocacy occasionally provoked Kublai's ire, as seen in the execution of a southern official urging the emperor's in Zhenjin's favor in 1285. These initiatives laid groundwork for post-Kublai successors to deepen Confucian elements in administration, fostering a that balanced Mongol oversight with Chinese institutional frameworks.

Military Involvement

Participation in Campaigns

Zhenjin's military involvement was limited compared to other Mongol princes, with historical records emphasizing his administrative oversight rather than direct participation in battles or field commands. Appointed head of the Central Secretariat in 1262 at age 19, he managed civil and military administration from the capital, including coordination of logistics and troop deployments during against the (1271–1279), but did not lead armies in the field. As designated in 1273, Zhenjin focused on internal stability and Confucian-influenced governance, which indirectly supported military efforts by ensuring efficient for ongoing wars, such as those against in (1268–1283). Primary sources, including Yuan annals, do not attribute to him personal exploits in suppressing rebellions like the Nayan revolt of 1287, which occurred after his death. This administrative emphasis reflects Kublai's strategy to groom Zhenjin for ruling a vast, Sinicized , prioritizing bureaucratic control over nomadic warfare traditions, though it drew criticism from traditionalist for diluting martial vigor. No verifiable accounts exist of Zhenjin commanding troops or engaging in combat, distinguishing him from siblings like Nomuqan, who led expeditions against .

Strategic Contributions

Zhenjin served as an advisor to on matters of governance that underpinned military sustainability, including the promotion of agricultural reforms to bolster for campaigns against the , completed in 1279. His advocacy for Confucian principles emphasized merit-based administration in military hierarchies, aiding the integration of officials into Mongol command structures to enhance operational efficiency across the empire's vast territories. Although not a field commander, Zhenjin's position as from positioned him to influence strategic , tempering Kublai's expansionist ambitions amid logistical strains from failed invasions, such as those against in 1274 and 1281. Historical evaluations note his bravery and talent, qualities essential for overseeing the Yuan's hybrid military system combining nomadic mobility with sedentary engineering innovations like advanced trebuchets.

Family and Personal Relations

Marriages and Offspring

Zhenjin married Kökejin (also rendered as Kököjin or Kökechin), a member of the Khunggirad clan, which had provided consorts to Mongol rulers including Zhenjin's mother . Kökejin served as his primary consort and played a significant role in supporting their son Temür's succession after Zhenjin's death. Historical records indicate Zhenjin likely had additional secondary wives, consistent with Mongol noble customs, though specific names and details remain sparsely documented beyond Kökejin. Kökejin bore Zhenjin at least three sons: Gammala (also Kamala), who was enfeoffed as Prince of Jin; Darmabala (or Dharmabala), who died in 1292 prior to Kublai Khan's passing; and Temür, the third son, who succeeded Kublai as Emperor Chengzong in 1294. These sons were central to the Yuan succession dynamics, with Temür's elevation to following Zhenjin's death in 1286, backed by Kökejin and ministers amid rival claims from other Kublai descendants. Zhenjin also had daughters, including Qutadmish, designated Grand Princess of and married to Körgüz, son of the Önggüd prince Ay Buqa, to strengthen alliances with semi-vassal groups. The precise number and fates of other offspring are less clearly recorded, reflecting the focus of Yuan annals on male heirs relevant to imperial continuity.

Dynamics with Kublai Khan

Zhenjin, born in 1243, received his name meaning "True Gold" from the Buddhist monk Haiyun, reflecting 's early exposure to Chinese and Buddhist influences under his father's patronage. actively prepared Zhenjin for leadership by designating him in 1273 and appointing him head of the Zhongshusheng (Central Secretariat), where he managed key administrative functions and implemented policies aligned with Confucian principles, demonstrating 's trust in his son's capacity to bridge Mongol traditions with Chinese governance. Throughout much of his adult life, Zhenjin collaborated closely with Kublai in Yuan administration, advising on reforms and earning his father's confidence as a stabilizing force amid the dynasty's expansion. However, tensions emerged late in Zhenjin's life; in 1285, an official's proposal for Kublai to abdicate in favor of his son provoked Kublai's anger, leading him to withhold audiences from Zhenjin. Zhenjin died on January 5, 1286, reportedly from illness exacerbated by the strain, eight years before Kublai's own death. Kublai's profound grief over Zhenjin's passing was evident in his immediate designation of Zhenjin's son Temür as the new Crown Prince, underscoring the depth of their bond despite recent frictions and Kublai's reliance on Zhenjin's lineage for dynastic continuity. This loss compounded Kublai's personal declines, including issues and shifts in his final years.

Death and Succession Crisis

Circumstances and Possible Causes

Zhenjin succumbed to illness on January 5, 1286, at the age of 43, while residing in the Yuan capital of Dadu. His death occurred amid ongoing tensions in the imperial court, where as he had frequently remonstrated against Kublai Khan's adoption of Confucian administrative practices and fiscal policies perceived as overly sinicized, earning opposition from pro-Chinese ministers. The , the official dynastic chronicle compiled in the early Ming era, explicitly attributes Zhenjin's demise to , noting his excessive consumption of alcohol as the direct precipitant. This account aligns with broader patterns of alcohol-related health issues among Mongol elites, though primary records do not detail acute symptoms or medical interventions at the time. Secondary analyses of the History of Yuan indicate that Zhenjin's condition involved a protracted illness preceding his final decline, potentially complicating the alcoholism diagnosis and suggesting underlying physiological vulnerabilities exacerbated by habitual intoxication. Court stress from factional intrigues and the burdens of heir apparent duties are posited by some interpreters as contributing factors to his drinking, though no contemporaneous sources confirm poisoning or foul play. Kublai Khan's profound grief over the loss, documented in Yuan annals, underscores the unexpected nature of the event given Zhenjin's relative youth and prior vigor.

Immediate Aftermath and Heir Designation

Following Zhenjin's death on January 5, 1286, expressed profound distress, which exacerbated his physical decline and contributed to his withdrawal from active governance in subsequent years. This event occurred eight years before 's own death in 1294, prompting immediate measures to secure the line of succession and avert potential instability within the Yuan court. To maintain continuity, Kublai promptly designated Zhenjin's third son, Temür (also rendered as ), as the new crown prince, granting him the seal of . Temür, then aged approximately 21, had already demonstrated loyalty by assisting in the suppression of rebellions, such as those in the region, which bolstered his position. This designation bypassed Zhenjin's other sons and other potential claimants among Kublai's descendants, reflecting a preference for direct patrilineal inheritance from the favored prince to preserve administrative stability amid ongoing military and fiscal challenges. The transition, while stabilizing the core lineage, sowed seeds of future contention, as rival princely factions viewed Temür's elevation as provisional rather than definitive, leading to murmurs of discontent that persisted until Kublai's reaffirmation of Temür's status before his own passing. Temür's role in this period involved advisory functions and military oversight, ensuring no immediate power vacuum disrupted Yuan operations against southern holdouts or internal dissent.

Legacy

Posthumous Recognition

Following his death on 5 January 1286, , profoundly distressed by the loss of his designated heir, conferred the posthumous title of Crown Prince Mingxiao (太子明孝) upon Zhenjin on 25 February 1293, affirming his status as the intended successor. Subsequently, after 's death on 18 February 1294 and Temür's ascension as emperor, Zhenjin's son Temür granted him the elevated posthumous imperial title of Emperor Wenhui Mingxiao (文惠明孝皇帝), along with the Zhuangjing (莊靖), thereby honoring his father's pivotal role in the Yuan administration and lineage continuity. These designations reflected Zhenjin's administrative reforms and loyalty, as emphasized in Yuan historical records, and ensured veneration in imperial temples.

Historical Evaluations and Debates

Zhenjin has been evaluated by historians as a promising administrator who bridged Mongol imperial traditions with Chinese bureaucratic norms, reflecting Kublai Khan's efforts to legitimize Yuan rule through Confucian integration. Born in 1243 and designated , he received extensive education in , becoming fluent in the language and deeply committed to Confucian ethics, which positioned him to potentially moderate the dynasty's fiscal and governance policies. His active opposition to corruption underscores this assessment, particularly his alliance with officials like Cui Bin to criticize finance minister for , , and abuses of power, actions that highlighted tensions between reformist ideals and entrenched interests in the early Yuan court. Despite failing to oust Ahmad before the latter's execution in 1282 following Empress Chabi's death, Zhenjin's stance demonstrated a for principled governance over favoritism. Debates among scholars focus less on his personal capabilities—generally viewed positively for their stabilizing potential—and more on the implications of his death at age 43 in 1286, officially recorded as due to in Yuan annals, which disrupted direct succession and forced Kublai to elevate Zhenjin's son Temür as heir, contributing to later dynastic instability.

Cultural Depictions

In Historical Texts

In the Yuan shi, the official dynastic history compiled in 1370 CE under Ming auspices but drawing on Yuan court records, Zhenjin is depicted as a paragon of princely virtue, blending Mongol heritage with Confucian ideals. His (Yuan shi, juan 114) portrays him as profoundly filial toward , proficient in under tutors such as Liu Bingzhong and Wang Xun, and actively involved in governance as head of the Zhongshu sheng (Central Secretariat) from 1263 onward. The text credits him with moderating his father's policies, such as critiquing excessive taxation and intervening against corruption, exemplified by his role in exposing conspiracies against allies like Cui Bin during the Ahmad affair in the 1280s. This portrayal underscores Zhenjin's name, meaning "true ," as symbolic of his purported moral purity and administrative acumen, including leadership in suppressing southern rebellions and promoting bureaucratic reforms that favored Chinese institutional norms over nomadic customs. The Yuan shi narrative frames his early designation as in 1273 as merited by these qualities, positioning him as a stabilizing force amid Kublai's expansive campaigns. However, the account remains eulogistic, typical of official historiography, with limited critical scrutiny of his limited military experience or potential over-reliance on advisors, which some later scholars interpret as evidence of straining Mongol traditionalism. Persian chronicles, such as Rashid al-Din's Jami' al-tawarikh (completed ca. 1307–1316 CE), mention Zhenjin more cursorily as Kublai's designated heir and administrator, reflecting Ilkhanid perspectives on Yuan affairs through diplomatic exchanges. The work notes his oversight of Chinese domains and role in fiscal policies but lacks the detailed moral panegyric of Chinese sources, instead embedding him within broader genealogies of Toluid lineage without emphasizing personal virtues or flaws. This comparative restraint may stem from the text's focus on universal history and Ilkhanid priorities, prioritizing factual succession over hagiographic idealization. Later Ming-era compilations, like the Ming shi, echo the Yuan shi's positive evaluation, reinforcing Zhenjin's image as a tragic figure whose untimely death in 1286 precipitated dynastic instability, though without novel insights beyond inherited annals.

In Modern Media

Zhenjin is portrayed as the crown prince Jingim in the historical drama series (2014–2016), played by Australian actor . The series depicts him as Kublai Khan's intelligent and conflicted heir, involved in court intrigues, romantic entanglements, and succession tensions amid the Mongol Empire's expansion and internal rivalries, though it takes significant dramatic liberties with historical timelines and events. In the 1982 Italian-American miniseries Marco Polo, directed by Giuliano Montaldo, Zhenjin appears as Prince Chinkin, portrayed by Japanese actor Junichi Ishida, as a key figure in Kublai's court during the explorer's visit. The portrayal emphasizes his role in imperial politics and family dynamics, aligning loosely with Yuan-era accounts but prioritizing narrative adventure. Zhenjin features in historical fiction novels focused on the Mongol Empire. In Conn Iggulden's Conqueror (2011), the final volume of the Conqueror series, he is characterized as a devoted son and capable administrator whom Kublai cherished, highlighting his premature death's impact on succession. In Gary W. Shockley's alternate history novel The Legend of Gong Shun Hui (2024), Zhenjin survives his historical illness to ascend as emperor, enabling prolonged Mongol rule over China through fictional political and military maneuvers. Depictions in video games, , or other contemporary media remain absent or marginal, with Zhenjin overshadowed by more prominent figures like in strategy titles such as , which includes the latter as a leader but omits specific reference to his heir. Overall, modern representations prioritize dramatic elements over strict , often using Zhenjin to explore themes of legacy and imperial fragility in Kublai's era.

References

  1. https://caseer.academy/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/The-Mongol-Empire-Genghis-Khan-His-Heirs-and-the-Founding-of-Modern-China-John-Man-z-lib.org_.pdf
  2. http://www.nouahsark.com/en/infocenter/culture/history/monarchs/zhenjin.php
  3. https://alchetron.com/Zhenjin
  4. https://ojs.elte.hu/tkt/article/download/8430/6688/19291
  5. https://paxmongolica.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/marriage-as-political-strategy-and-cultural-expression-mongolian-royal-marriages-from-world-empire-to-yuan-dynasty.pdf
  6. https://www.geni.com/people/Borjigin-Zhenjin-%25E7%259C%259F%25E9%2587%2591-Crown-Prince-of-Yuan/6000000005010098852
  7. http://www.mongolian-art.de/01_mongolian_art/gallery_comic_secret_history_mongols/027-0280.jpg.html
  8. https://epa.oszk.hu/04500/04539/00028/pdf/EPA04539_tavol-keleti_tanulmanyok_2024_2.pdf
  9. https://doi.org/10.38144/TKT.2024.2.2
  10. https://www.vedantu.com/biography/kublai-khan
  11. https://www.eyeshenzhen.com/content/2025-04/10/content_31532815.htm
  12. https://www.globethesis.com/?t=2295330470476840
  13. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Yuan/yuan-event.html
  14. https://www.chinafetching.com/kublai-khan
  15. https://www.nouahsark.com/en/infocenter/culture/history/monarchs/temur_khan_emperor_chengzong_of_yuan.php
  16. https://www.nouahsark.com/en/infocenter/culture/history/monarchs/zhenjin.php
  17. https://ctext.org/datawiki.pl?if=en&res=274213
  18. https://www.medievalists.net/2022/10/mongol-khans-alcohol/
  19. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/379a7233617b4cdaa7b1e110d7f34b65
  20. https://amazingbibletimeline.com/blog/mongol-yuan-dynasty-ruled-china-12061271-1368/
  21. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-history-of-the-mongol-empire/empire-of-the-great-khan/41EEE744E9D3545E7111DC25B77C33F2
  22. https://dokumen.pub/the-mongol-century-visual-cultures-of-yuan-china-12711368-0824851455-9780824851453.html
  23. https://www.netflix.com/title/70305883
  24. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/12280500-conqueror
  25. https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/the-legend-of-gong-shun-hui-gary-w-shockley/1148365032
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.