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4 Baruch
4 Baruch
4 Baruch
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Folio 36r of the Theodore Psalter depicts scenes derived from 4 Baruch.[1][2]

Fourth Baruch is a pseudepigraphical text of the Old Testament. Paralipomena of Jeremiah appears as the title in several Ancient Greek manuscripts of the work, meaning "things left out of (the Book of) Jeremiah."[3] It is part of the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible.

Origin and transmission

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4 Baruch is usually dated to the first half of the 2nd century AD. Abimelech's sleep of 66 years, instead of the usual 70 years of Babylonian captivity, makes scholars tend toward the year AD 136, that is, 66 years after the fall of the Second Temple in AD 70. This dating is coherent with the message of the text.[4]

The text is known in both full-length and reduced versions. The full-length versions came down to us in Greek (older manuscripts dated 10th–11th centuries[4] and 15th century[5]), in Ethiopic Ge'ez (titled Rest of the Words of Baruch, the older manuscript dated to the 15th century), in Armenian,[6] and in Slavic.[7] The shortened versions have come down to us in Greek (named Meneo), Romanian and Slavic.[8]

Some parts of 4 Baruch appear to have been added in the Christian era, such as the last chapter; due to these insertions, some scholars consider 4 Baruch to have Christian origins.[4]

Synopsis

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4 Baruch uses a simple and fable-like style, with speech-making animals, fruit that never rots, and an eagle sent by the Lord that revives the dead.

The Lord reveals to Jeremiah that Jerusalem will be destroyed because of the impiety of the Israelites. Jeremiah informs Baruch, and that night they see angels open the door to the city. Jeremiah is instructed by the Lord to miraculously hide in the earth the vestments of the high priest of the Temple. The Chaldeans enter Jerusalem, and Jeremiah follows the Israelites into exile, while Baruch remains in Jerusalem. Abimelech (= Ebedmelech the Ethiopian of Jeremiah 38:7) falls asleep for 66 years and awakens next to a basket of figs, preserved perfectly fresh. Because the figs are fresh out of season, Abimelech realizes that he slept for years miraculously. Abimelech reunites with Baruch. They want to communicate with Jeremiah, who is still in Babylon, so Baruch prays to the Lord, who sends him an eagle. The eagle takes a letter and some of the figs to Jeremiah. It finds Jeremiah officiating at a funeral and alights on the corpse, bringing it back to life, thus announcing the end of the exile. The Israelites return to Jerusalem, but only those men who have no foreign wives are allowed to pass the Jordan.

Like the greater prophets, 4 Baruch advocates the divorce of foreign wives and exile of those who will not do so. According to 4 Baruch, the Samaritans are the descendants of such mixed marriages.

Reception and influence

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Fourth Baruch is regarded as pseudepigraphical by all Christian churches, except the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (see Rest of the Words of Baruch).

The Jewish pseudepigraphical text History of the Captivity in Babylon belongs to the cycle of Baruch and is related to 4 Baruch. It is longer and probably older than 4 Baruch.[9][10] It has very few and circumscribed Christian insertions and does not have the fable-like style of 4 Baruch. Abimelech's sleep is here of 70 years, the usual duration of the Babylonian captivity. The original Greek is lost, but we have Sahidic Coptic manuscripts[11] and, even if less ancient, Arabic Garshuni manuscripts[12]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

4 Baruch

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4 Baruch, also known as the Paralipomena of Jeremiah (Greek for "things omitted from "), is a pseudepigraphical text of early that expands on the biblical account of the Babylonian destruction of in 586 BCE, featuring dialogues, visions, and letters between the prophet , his scribe Baruch, and other figures like , while emphasizing themes of , , and future restoration. Composed in Greek as its original language, the work survives in multiple recensions, including long and short Greek versions, as well as translations in Ethiopic, Armenian, Slavonic, and Romanian. Scholars date the core Jewish composition to the early second century CE, likely between 118 and 132 CE in , possibly near , amid rising tensions leading to the against Roman rule, which the text subtly reflects through its motifs of captivity and return. The narrative structure divides into nine chapters: the first four center on receiving divine warnings about Jerusalem's fall, instructing him to hide sacred Temple vessels and escort the exiles to , while Baruch remains to mourn the city; chapter five recounts Abimelech's miraculous 66-year sleep during the exile, from which he awakens bearing fresh figs as a sign of Israel's eventual return and resurrection; chapters six and seven detail an exchange of encouraging letters between Baruch and Jeremiah, delivered by an eagle; chapter eight describes the exiles' joyful homecoming and the origins of ; and chapter nine, widely regarded as a later Christian interpolation (dated after 136 CE), includes Jeremiah's sacrificial prayer, his death, and a vision alluding to Jesus Christ as a preexistent figure. The text draws on canonical sources such as the books of , 2 Kings, 2 Chronicles, , and , but diverges in key details to function as a form of rewritten scripture or haggadic supplement, offering consolation to a Jewish audience facing destruction and dispersion. Attributed pseudonymously to Baruch, it exhibits Pharisaic influences in its early chapters and is classified among the , excluding it from Jewish and Protestant canons while occasionally appearing in liturgical contexts in Eastern Christian traditions. Scholarly debate persists on its precise provenance and the extent of Christian redaction, with some arguing for broader Christian elements beyond chapter nine, though consensus holds the original as a Jewish work addressing eschatological hope in a time of crisis; it shares thematic parallels with contemporaries like and 4 Ezra, particularly in responding to the trauma of the First Jewish-Roman War's aftermath in 70 CE.

Historical Context and Composition

Date and Authorship

The core Jewish composition of 4 Baruch is generally dated to the early second century CE, with most scholars placing it between 118 and 132 CE during the reign of , on the eve of the . This timeframe is supported by the narrative's motif of Abimelech's 66-year sleep, which symbolizes the interval from the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE to around 136 CE, potentially reflecting post-revolt trauma or anticipation of further upheaval. Some analyses, such as that by J. R. Harris, propose a precise date of 136 CE by directly adding the 66 years to 70 CE, though this is considered overly literal by others who favor a broader early second-century context. The text is pseudepigraphically attributed to Baruch, the of the mentioned in the , but its actual authorship is anonymous and remains unknown. As an apocalyptic pseudepigraphon, it was likely composed by Jewish writers in Greek, drawing on Jeremianic traditions to address themes of and restoration. The core narrative exhibits Jewish origins, but the final chapter (4 Baruch 9:10–32) contains Christian interpolations, including anti-Jewish polemic that contrasts synagogue practices with emerging Christian worship, suggesting a later possibly after 136 CE with influences from . Scholarly consensus leans toward a primarily Jewish authorship for the main body of the text, with limited Christian revisions, as argued by B. Schaller and J. Herzer, who date the original to the first half of the second century CE. However, debates persist: some, like P. Bogaert and M. Philonenko, propose a Christian from the third or fourth century CE, viewing the work as an encratitic composition from a church or a rewriting. Additionally, the narrative shares parallels with the older Jewish pseudepigraphon History of the Captivity in Babylon (also known as the Coptic Jeremiah Apocryphon), which may serve as a source or related expansion within the Baruch-Jeremiah literary cycle, though the exact dependency remains contested.

Original Language and Genre

The original language of 4 Baruch, also known as the Paralipomena of Jeremiah, is Greek, though this is debated among scholars. Bernd Schaller, in his stylistic analysis, highlights idiomatic Greek constructions and the absence of typical translationese, suggesting composition directly in Greek, and no Hebrew or fragments or manuscripts have been discovered. However, some scholars propose a possible Semitic (Hebrew or ) Vorlage due to certain linguistic difficulties in the Greek that may align better with Semitic originals. In terms of genre, 4 Baruch belongs to the category of apocalyptic , pseudonymously attributed to Baruch, the scribe of , and characterized by visionary revelations and eschatological themes typical of Second Temple . It incorporates haggadic elements through narrative expansions on biblical stories from the , blending prophetic discourse, symbolic visions, and fable-like motifs to retell and restoration of . This places it within the broader Jeremiah-Baruch literary cycle, which includes related works like and the Epistle of Jeremiah, reflecting interpretive traditions in early . Structurally, 4 Baruch is divided into nine chapters, employing a fable-like style that integrates symbolic devices, such as a speaking eagle serving as a divine messenger and the prolonged sleep of the character for sixty-six years to signify the duration of . These elements contribute to its hybrid form, combining dramatic with apocalyptic while maintaining a cohesive focus on communal lament and .

Manuscripts and Textual Transmission

Greek Manuscripts

The Greek text of 4 Baruch, also known as Paraleipomena Jeremiou, survives in two primary recensions: a longer form and a shorter form. The longer form, generally regarded as closer to the original composition, is attested in approximately 23 manuscripts dating from the CE onward. These manuscripts typically include a Christian ending and preserve more extensive Jewish material, such as detailed laments and dialogues. Notable examples include Paris Greek MS 1534 (, sigla ), which contains the text on folios 159–169, and Jerusalem Taphos Library MS 6 (, sigla G^C), found on folios 242–247r, though the latter diverges at 8:5 to incorporate other material. The shorter form, which omits Christian interpolations and condenses narrative elements like chapter 2 into a single sentence and Baruch's lament in chapter 4, appears in about 40 manuscripts, primarily from the 13th–14th centuries onward. This is often embedded in Greek Menaion collections for liturgical use, with examples including 15th-century versions that abridge the text up to chapter 5 in some cases. Key witnesses to the short form include sigla such as G^v (Codex Barberini gr. 3,3) and G^aeg. The first Western edition of the Greek text was produced by J.R. Harris in 1889, based on selected manuscripts and titled The Rest of the Words of Baruch. A more comprehensive provisional critical edition followed in 1972 by Robert A. Kraft and Ann-Elizabeth Purintun, which collated the long and short forms using sigla like G^A, G^B for variant groupings (e.g., G^A and G^B as closely related long-form witnesses). Textual variants among these manuscripts include differences in chapter divisions, narrative summaries, and endings, with the long form maintaining fuller Jewish traditions while the short form reflects liturgical adaptations.

Translations and Versions

The Ethiopic (Ge'ez) version of 4 Baruch, titled Säqoqawä Eremyas or "Rest of the Words of Baruch," survives in over 50 manuscripts, the oldest of which date to the 15th–16th centuries. This full-length translation closely follows the long Greek recension and is incorporated as a canonical book within the broader Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon. The Armenian version is attested in a small number of medieval manuscripts, including Venice MS 345 (dated 1220 CE) and Etchmiadzin MS 1447 (16th century), and appears to have been translated directly from the Greek original, preserving the long form with minor variations. Slavonic translations exist in both long and short forms, derived from the Greek; the long form appears in 13th–14th century palimpsests such as the Sinaiticus manuscript, while the short form is found in 15th-century copies. Other versions include later Romanian adaptations, but no evidence exists for translations into Hebrew or . The predominance of post-10th century manuscripts across these versions indicates limited early circulation outside the Greek tradition, with the text's rediscovery in the West occurring in the 18th–19th centuries through Orientalist and collections.

Narrative and Content

Synopsis of the Plot

In the opening of 4 Baruch, also known as the Paralipomena of Jeremiah, an angel announces to the prophet the impending destruction of by the Babylonians due to the people's sins, instructing him to hide the sacred vessels of the Temple in the earth to preserve them until the restoration. Jeremiah laments the fate of the city, and God commands him to accompany the exiles to while his companion Baruch remains behind to encourage the people. As the Chaldean forces approach, Jeremiah and Baruch witness angels with torches marking the buildings for destruction, after which the city falls, and Jeremiah is taken into captivity. In the middle section, Jeremiah dispatches Abimelech, also called Ebed-Melech, to gather figs from a ; while resting under a tree after gathering them, Abimelech falls into a divinely induced lasting 66 years, during which the exile unfolds. Baruch, meanwhile, stays in Jerusalem, fasting and praying amid the ruins. After awakening, Abimelech discovers the figs still fresh, and Baruch interprets this as a of hope. Baruch then writes a letter to in , attaching it to figs and sending it via an eagle; the drops the message in Jeremiah's lap, and upon landing, it revives a corpse with its touch, signaling to the exiles that the time of captivity is ending. The climax centers on the return from , where leads the people back to but first separates at the those who had intermarried with foreign women during , exiling them further to the north; these outcasts are depicted as the ancestors of the . The faithful rebuild the city, retrieve the hidden Temple vessels, and restore worship. rejoins them, confirming the passage of time through his sleep. The ending, a later Christian addition, features Jeremiah receiving a vision of a luminous descending from , revealing divine mysteries and prophesying the coming of a messianic figure identified as after 477 years. In a against the for rejecting the prophets, Jeremiah is stoned to death by an angry crowd but is miraculously revived to deliver his final words before dying again; Baruch and bury him, erecting a stone in his memory.

Key Characters and Symbolism

Jeremiah serves as the central figure in 4 Baruch, portrayed as a faithful prophet who receives divine instructions to hide the sacred temple vessels before the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem, thereby preserving Israel's holy heritage. He leads the remnant of the people into exile in Babylon, where he continues to exhort them toward repentance and faithfulness, embodying unwavering obedience to God amid catastrophe. This role underscores his archetypal status as a guardian of divine covenant, distinct from his biblical counterpart by emphasizing his protective actions toward sacred objects. Baruch, Jeremiah's scribe and loyal companion, remains in Jerusalem during the siege, engaging in profound lamentation over the city's fall and serving as a conduit for divine communication through visions and letters. He represents the scribal of recording and transmitting prophetic , while his persistent highlights themes of communal and for restoration. In the narrative, Baruch's interactions with other figures, such as sending messages to , position him as a mediator between the devastated homeland and the exiled community. Abimelech, the Ethiopian servant of , is sent to gather figs from the royal garden but falls into a miraculous lasting 66 years, awakening to a ruined and reuniting with Baruch to signal the end of . His slumber symbolizes the suspended time endured by the faithful during the period of desolation, akin to the Jewish people in , and his revival marks divine restoration, with the preserved figs representing enduring hope and purity. Scholars interpret this 66-year duration as an allegory spanning from the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE to the around 136 CE, consoling readers that is temporary under God's plan. The eagle functions as a divine , dispatched by God to carry letters between Baruch in and in , facilitating communication across the divide of and symbolizing heavenly intervention in human affairs. Its human-like speech and timely arrivals emphasize God's sovereignty over earthly chaos. In the Christian recension's ending, a luminous cloud envelops after his martyrdom, lifting his body heavenward and serving as a Christological symbol of and ascension, adapting Jewish motifs to early . Nebuchadnezzar appears as the archetypal destroyer, leading the Chaldean forces that raze as , embodying imperial oppression and the consequences of covenant unfaithfulness. The foreign wives of the people represent sources of impurity and , whose influence precipitates the catastrophe; Jeremiah's call for their expulsion underscores the narrative's emphasis on and moral purity as prerequisites for restoration.

Theological Themes

Divine Providence and Intervention

In 4 Baruch, manifests as God's sovereign control over historical calamities, where He reveals to the impending destruction of by the Chaldeans as a consequence of Israel's sins, yet simultaneously assures restoration and for the remnant. This dual motif underscores God's foreknowledge and purposeful plan, as seen in the prophetic vision where the Lord declares the city's handover to enemies while pledging to remember His covenant and gather the dispersed after a period of . Angelic agents further exemplify this providence by executing —such as igniting the city's gates to signal the Babylonian assault—and delivering protective instructions to preserve sacred Temple vessels, ensuring their sanctity until the eschatological return. Miraculous events in the narrative highlight direct divine intervention, suspending natural laws to affirm hope amid catastrophe. Abimelech's supernatural slumber of sixty-six years, induced by God upon his departure from , allows him to bypass the era of destruction and witness the era of restoration upon awakening, symbolizing divine preservation of the faithful. Similarly, the eagle's role as a divine messenger—carrying letters between the exiles and , reviving a , and transporting fresh figs from the preserved Temple—demonstrates God's command over natural elements to sustain communication and provision, evoking motifs that counter the finality of loss. Theologically, these elements unify the text by emphasizing God's unchallenged sovereignty over empires like and over creation itself, portraying the Chaldeans not as autonomous victors but as instruments in a larger divine economy that ultimately serves Israel's . In a post-70 CE Jewish context, such interventions address communal despair by illustrating that human failures—evident in Israel's persistent and inability to avert ruin—do not thwart God's redemptive timeline, which unfolds inexorably toward renewal despite apparent defeat. This portrayal reinforces the notion of divine , where providence protects and elevates the righteous even as judgment falls on the unfaithful.

Purity, Exile, and Restoration

In 4 Baruch, the theme of communal purity is central to the narrative's ethical framework, emphasizing the necessity of separating from foreign influences to preserve holiness. God commands Jeremiah to instruct the returning exiles at the Jordan River to divorce any wives taken from the daughters of Babylon and to abandon children born from such unions, mirroring the biblical mandate in Ezra-Nehemiah to end intermarriages as a condition for restoration. Those who refuse this separation are deemed unfit for the holy community and face perpetual exclusion, underscoring that intermarriage introduces impurity that perpetuates divine disfavor. Exile serves as a profound metaphor for the consequences of impurity in the text, with Babylon representing the realm of defilement where the people endure prolonged judgment. The duration of captivity is specified as sixty-six years, during which the exiles must abstain from gentile pollutions to maintain their covenant identity, as Jeremiah exhorts them upon arrival. This extended period symbolizes the depth of divine retribution for communal sins, including prior lapses in purity, yet it also foreshadows hope through miraculous signs, such as the basket of figs preserved fresh for the entire time, indicating that affliction is not endless. The vision of restoration highlights of a faithful remnant purified through separation, reinforcing strict ethnic and ritual boundaries. Only those who comply with the mandate are permitted to reenter , forming a holy community cleansed of foreign admixtures, while the non-compliant—half of those with Babylonian spouses—are rejected by both and , leading them to settle in the desert and establish the city of as a negative exemplar of mixed lineage. This portrayal ties eschatological hope to ultimate purification, envisioning a post-Temple defined by separation from impurity and fidelity to covenant norms, ensuring the remnant's enduring restoration.

Reception and Canonical Status

Early Reception in Judaism and Christianity

The text of 4 Baruch, also known as Paraleipomena Jeremiou, likely circulated in Hellenistic Jewish communities in and the following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, reflecting responses to that crisis through its narrative of and restoration. It shares narrative traditions with the related pseudepigraphon History of the Captivity in Babylon, particularly in motifs of prophetic guidance during and the timing of return from captivity, suggesting common Jewish exegetical streams but distinct compositions. However, 4 Baruch did not achieve canonical status in , remaining outside the authoritative scriptural collections shaped by post-Temple rabbinic authorities. In early Christian communities, 4 Baruch underwent limited adaptation, primarily through the addition of chapter 9:10–32, likely composed after the in 132–136 CE, which introduced elements interpretable as messianic, such as visions involving divine intervention and a cloud-like symbol evoking eschatological themes, possibly for polemical contrast with Jewish expectations. These changes show Johannine influences and were integrated into Eastern Christian liturgical and hagiographic collections, such as Greek menaia for commemorations on or , indicating use in but not as authoritative scripture. In Western Christianity, the text was consistently viewed as apocryphal, with no evidence of direct influence on writings or core doctrinal developments. Regarding canonical status, 4 Baruch is included in the narrower canon (46 books) of the as part of the cycle; the church recognizes both a narrower canon and a broader one with additional texts. It was translated into Ge'ez, with preservation in over 50 manuscripts. It was rejected as pseudepigraphal by most other Jewish and Christian traditions, including Protestant, Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox canons, due to its late composition and non-prophetic attribution. Early citations of 4 Baruch in patristic literature are sparse and indirect at best, with no unambiguous references in second- or third-century ; its attestation begins reliably only from the tenth century onward in manuscript miscellanies alongside other like 4 Ezra and Jubilees. This transmission pattern underscores its marginal role in formative Jewish and Christian textual traditions, often appearing in compilations rather than standalone scriptural contexts.

Modern Scholarship and Influence

Modern scholarship on 4 Baruch, also known as the Paraleipomena of Jeremiah, has focused on its textual history, compositional layers, and historical context following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The first critical edition was produced by Harris in 1889, presenting the Greek text with an introduction that dated the work to around 136 CE and identified it as a Christian . Subsequent editions advanced , notably the 1972 work by Robert A. Kraft and Ann-Elizabeth Purintun, which provided a bilingual Greek-English version based on available manuscripts and highlighted variant readings. Dale C. Allison Jr.'s 2019 verse-by-verse commentary offered the most comprehensive analysis to date, examining the text's Jewish origins with later Christian additions and its reflection of post-70 CE Jewish responses to and restoration. Scholars continue to debate 4 Baruch's literary relationships, particularly its potential dependence on related apocalyptic works such as 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra, with some arguing for shared traditions in themes of divine judgment and return from captivity, while others posit 4 Baruch as a later synthesis influenced by these texts. The text plays a key role in understanding post-70 CE Judaism, illustrating communal mourning over the Temple's loss and hopes for renewal amid Roman oppression. Christian interpolations, such as references to Jesus by name in chapter 9, have been analyzed as evidence of early anti-Judaism, where redactors adapted Jewish narratives to promote supersessionist views, though the core story remains rooted in Jewish exilic motifs. Jens Herzer's 2005 edition and commentary further emphasized these layers, tracing how the work bridges Hellenistic Jewish literature and early Christian adaptation. In terms of influence, 4 Baruch contributes significantly to the study of pseudepigrapha, enriching discussions on apocalyptic responses to catastrophe and intertextual dialogues with prophets like . It holds status in the [Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church](/page/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo Church), informing broader Ethiopian biblical studies and highlighting the text's preservation in non-Greek traditions. Literary echoes appear in motifs like the sleeping , which parallel the Christian of the Seven Sleepers and even folk tales such as "," though its broader impact on modern apocalyptic fiction remains limited and indirect. Despite these advances, gaps persist in scholarship, particularly regarding the Armenian and Slavonic variants, which are incompletely edited and analyzed compared to the Greek manuscripts. Additionally, further integration of 4 Baruch with potential parallels in the Dead Sea Scrolls, such as themes of hidden temple vessels and prophetic , could illuminate pre-70 CE Jewish traditions informing the text, but such comparative work remains underdeveloped.
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