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Hope
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A girl with a hopeful expression
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Hope is an optimistic state of mind that is based on an expectation of positive outcomes with respect to events and circumstances in one's own life, or the world at large.[1] As a verb, Merriam-Webster defines hope as "to expect with confidence" or "to cherish a desire with anticipation".[2]

Among its opposites are dejection, hopelessness, and despair.[3]

Hope finds expression through many dimensions of human life, including practical reasoning, the religious virtue of hope, legal doctrine, and literature, alongside cultural and mythological aspects.

In psychology

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Hope, which lay at the bottom of the box, remained. Allegorical painting by George Frederic Watts, 1886

American professor of psychology Barbara Fredrickson argues that hope comes into its own when crisis looms, opening us to new creative possibilities.[4] Frederickson argues that with great need comes an unusually wide range of ideas, as well as such positive emotions as happiness and joy, courage, and empowerment, drawn from four different areas of one's self: from a cognitive, psychological, social, or physical perspective.[5] Such positive thinking bears fruit when based on a realistic sense of optimism, not on a naive "false hope".[6][7]

The psychologist Charles R. Snyder linked hope to the existence of a goal, combined with a determined plan for reaching that goal.[8] Alfred Adler had similarly argued for the centrality of goal-seeking in human psychology,[9] as too had philosophical anthropologists like Ernst Bloch.[10] Snyder also stressed the link between hope and mental willpower (hardiness),[11] as well as the need for realistic perception of goals (problem orientation),[12] arguing that the difference between hope and optimism was that the former can look like wishful thinking but the latter provides the energy to find practical pathways for an improved future.[13] D. W. Winnicott saw a child's antisocial behavior as expressing as a cry for help, an unconscious hope, meaning an unspoken desire for a positive outcome for those who are in control in the wider society, when containment within the immediate family had failed.[14] Object relations theory similarly sees the analytic transference as motivated in part by an unconscious hope that past conflicts and traumas can be dealt with anew.[15]

Hope Theory

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As a specialist in positive psychology, Snyder studied how hope and forgiveness can impact several aspects of life such as health, work, education, and personal meaning. He postulated that three main things make up hopeful thinking:[16]

  • Goals – Approaching life in a goal-oriented way.
  • Pathways – Finding different ways to achieve your goals.
  • Agency – Believing that you can instigate change and achieve these goals.
A rose expressing hope, at Auschwitz concentration camp

In other words, hope was defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways.

Snyder argues that individuals who are able to realize these three components and develop a belief in their ability are hopeful people who can establish clear goals, imagine multiple workable pathways toward those goals, and persevere, even when obstacles get in their way.

Snyder proposed a "Hope Scale" which considered that a person's determination to achieve their goal is their measured hope. Snyder differentiates between adult-measured hope and child-measured hope. The Adult Hope Scale by Snyder contains 12 questions: 4 measuring 'pathways thinking', 4 measuring 'agency thinking', and 4 that are simply fillers. Each subject responds to each question using an 8-point scale.[17] Fibel and Hale measure hope by combining Snyder's Hope Scale with their own Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS) to empirically measure hope.[18] Snyder regarded that psychotherapy can help focus attention on one's goals, drawing on tacit knowledge of how to reach them.[19] Similarly, there is an outlook and a grasp of reality to hope, distinguishing No Hope, Lost Hope, False Hope and Real Hope, which differ in terms of viewpoint and realism.[20]

Hopeful Outlook Wishful Committed
Hopeful Outlook
Distorted Reality
False Hope 		Hopeful Outlook
Accurate Reality
Real Hope
Skeptical No Hope
Hopeless Outlook
Distorted Reality 		Lost Hope
Hopeless Outlook
Accurate Reality
Hopeless Helpless Surrendered
Grasp of Reality
Uninformed
Distorted
Denied 		Informed
Accurate
Assimilated

Contemporary philosopher Richard Rorty understands hope as more than goal setting, rather as a metanarrative, a story that serves as a promise or reason for expecting a better future. Rorty as postmodernist believes past meta-narratives, including the Christian story, utilitarianism, and Marxism have proved false hopes; that theory cannot offer social hope; and that liberal man must learn to live without a consensual theory of social hope.[21] Rorty says a new document of promise is needed for social hope to exist again.[22]

In healthcare

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Major theories

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Of the countless models that examine the importance of hope in an individual's life, two major theories have gained a significant amount of recognition in the field of psychology. One of these theories, developed by Charles R. Snyder, argues that hope should be viewed as a cognitive skill that demonstrates an individual's ability to maintain drive in the pursuit of a particular goal.[23] This model reasons that an individual's ability to be hopeful depends on two types of thinking: agency thinking and pathway thinking. Agency thinking refers to an individual's determination to achieve their goals despite possible obstacles, while pathway thinking refers to the ways in which an individual believes they can achieve these personal goals.

Snyder's theory uses hope as a mechanism that is most often seen in psychotherapy. In these instances, the therapist helps their client overcome barriers that have prevented them from achieving goals. The therapist would then help the client set realistic and relevant personal goals (i.e. "I am going to find something I am passionate about and that makes me feel good about myself"), and would help them remain hopeful of their ability to achieve these goals, and suggest the correct pathways to do so.

Whereas Snyder's theory focuses on hope as a mechanism to overcome an individual's lack of motivation to achieve goals, the other major theory developed by Kaye A. Herth deals more specifically with an individual's future goals as they relate to coping with illnesses.[24] Herth views hope as "a motivational and cognitive attribute that is theoretically necessary to initiate and sustain action toward goal attainment".[25] Establishing realistic and attainable goals in this situation is more difficult, as the individual most likely does not have direct control over the future of their health. Instead, Herth suggests that the goals should be concerned with how the individual is going to personally deal with the illness—"Instead of drinking to ease the pain of my illness, I am going to surround myself with friends and family".[25]

While the nature of the goals in Snyder's model differ with those in Herth's model, they both view hope as a way to maintain personal motivation, which ultimately will result in a greater sense of optimism.

Major empirical findings

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Hope, and more specifically, particularized hope, has been shown to be an important part of the recovery process from illness; it has strong psychological benefits for patients, helping them to cope more effectively with their disease.[26] For example, hope motivates people to pursue healthy behaviors for recovery, such as eating fruits and vegetables, quitting smoking, and engaging in regular physical activity. This not only helps to enhance people's recovery from illnesses but also helps prevent illness from developing in the first place.[27] Patients who maintain high levels of hope have an improved prognosis for life-threatening illness and an enhanced quality of life.[28] Belief and expectation, which are key elements of hope, block pain in patients suffering from chronic illness by releasing endorphins and mimicking the effects of morphine. Consequently, through this process, belief and expectation can set off a chain reaction in the body that can make recovery from chronic illness more likely. This chain reaction is especially evident with studies demonstrating the placebo effect, a situation when hope is the only variable aiding in these patients' recovery.[27]

Overall, studies have demonstrated that maintaining a sense of hope during a period of recovery from illness is beneficial. A sense of hopelessness during the recovery period has, in many instances, resulted in adverse health conditions for the patient (i.e. depression and anxiety following the recovery process).[29] Additionally, having a greater amount of hope before and during cognitive therapy has led to decreased PTSD-related depression symptoms in war veterans.[30] Hope has also been found to be associated with more positive perceptions of subjective health. However, reviews of research literature have noted that the connections between hope and symptom severity in other mental health disorders are less clear, such as in cases of individuals with schizophrenia.[31]

Hope is a powerful protector against chronic or life-threatening illnesses. A person's hope (even when facing an illness that will likely end their life) can be helpful by finding joy or comfort. It can be created and focused on achieving life goals, such as meeting grandchildren or attending a child's wedding. Hope can be an opportunity for us to process and go through events, that can be traumatic. A setback in life, an accident, or our own final months of living can be times when hope is comfort and serves as a pathway from one stage to the next.[32]

Hope is a powerful emotion that drives us to keep working and moving forward. It gives us the power to survive. In a study conducted by Harvard, Curt Richter experimented with 12 wild rats and 12 domesticated rats. The wild rats, known for their great swimming abilities, survived for only about two minutes when placed in a glass container of water with no way of escape. In contrast, the domesticated rats survived for days.[33] Curt attributed this difference to hope. The domesticated rats hoped to be saved from drowning, but the wild rats had no such hope, as they had never experienced rescue.

Curt decided to run another experiment with 12 wild rats. He placed them in water, and when they were about to drown, he took them out and held them briefly, creating an experience of hope. He then returned the rats to the water to observe how long they would tread water. Remarkably, they survived just as long as the domesticated rats—about 60 hours. With hope, the rats went from surviving for 2 minutes to treading water for 60 hours.

Hope is a powerful emotion. It drives us to move faster, further, and longer than we thought possible. But for hope to thrive, it must be anchored in something more powerful than ourselves. The rats had hope that a saving hand would come and lift them out of the water.[1]

Applications

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The inclusion of hope in treatment programs has potential in both physical and mental health settings. Hope as a mechanism for improved treatment has been studied in the contexts of PTSD, chronic physical illness, and terminal illness, among other disorders and ailments.[30][31] Within mental health practice, clinicians have suggested using hope interventions as a supplement to more traditional cognitive behavioral therapies.[31] In terms of support for physical illness, research suggests that hope can encourage the release of endorphins and enkephalins, which help to block pain.[27]

Impediments

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There are two main arguments based on judgment against those who are advocates of using hope to help treat severe illnesses. The first of which is that if physicians have too much hope, they may aggressively treat the patient. The physician will hold on to a small shred of hope that the patient may get better. Thus, this causes them to try methods that are costly and may have many side effects. One physician noted[34] that she regretted having hope for her patient; it resulted in her patient suffering through three more years of pain that the patient would not have endured if the physician had realized recovery was unfeasible.

The second argument is the division between hope and wishing. Those that are hopeful are actively trying to investigate the best path of action while taking into consideration the obstacles. Research[27] has shown though that many of those who have "hope" are wishfully thinking and passively going through the motions, as if they are in denial about their actual circumstances. Being in denial and having too much hope may negatively impact both the patient and the physician.

Benefits

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The impact that hope can have on a patient's recovery process is strongly supported through both empirical research and theoretical approaches. However, reviews of literature also maintain that more longitudinal and methodologically sound research is needed to establish which hope interventions are actually the most effective, and in what setting (i.e. chronic illness vs. terminal illness).[31]

In culture

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In the matter of globalization, hope is focused on economic and social empowerment.

Focusing on parts of Asia, hope has taken on a secular or materialistic form in relation to the pursuit of economic growth. Primary examples are the rise of the economies of China and India, correlating with the notion of Chindia. A secondary relevant example is the increased use of contemporary architecture in rising economies, such as the building of the Shanghai World Financial Center, Burj Khalifa and Taipei 101, which has given rise to a prevailing hope within the countries of origin.[35] In chaotic environments hope is transcended without cultural boundaries, Syrian refugee children are supported by UNESCO's education project through creative education and psycho-social assistance.[36] Other inter-cultural support for instilling hope involve food culture, disengaging refugees from trauma through immersing them in their rich cultural past.[37]

In literature

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Engraving of Pandora trying to close the box that she had opened out of curiosity. At left, the evils of the world taunt her as they escape. The engraving is based on a painting by F. S. Church.

Hope is the thing with feathers that perches in the soul and sings the tune without the words and never stops at all.

— Emily Dickinson[38]

A classic reference to hope which has entered modern language is the concept that "Hope springs eternal" taken from Alexander Pope's Essay on Man, the phrase reading "Hope springs eternal in the human breast, Man never is, but always to be blest:"[39] Another popular reference, "Hope is the thing with feathers," is from a poem by Emily Dickinson.[40]

Hope can be used as an artistic plot device and is often a motivating force for change in dynamic characters. A commonly understood reference from western popular culture is the subtitle "A New Hope" from the original first installment (now considered Episode IV) in the Star Wars science fiction space opera.[41] The subtitle refers to one of the lead characters, Luke Skywalker, who is expected in the future to allow good to triumph over evil within the plot of the films.

The swallow has been a symbol of hope, in Aesop's fables and numerous other historic literature.[42] It symbolizes hope, in part because it is among the first birds to appear at the end of winter and the start of spring.[43] Other symbols of hope include the anchor[44] and the dove.[45]

Nietzsche took a contrarian but coherent view of hope:-

... Zeus did not wish man, however much he might be tormented by the other evils, to fling away his life, but to go on letting himself be tormented again and again. Therefore he gives Man hope,—in reality it is the worst of all evils, because it prolongs the torments of Man.

— Friedrich Nietzsche[46]

In mythology

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Elpis (Hope) appears in ancient Greek mythology with the story of Zeus and Prometheus. Prometheus stole fire from the god Zeus, which infuriated the supreme god. In turn, Zeus created a box that contained all manners of evil, unbeknownst to the receiver of the box. Pandora opened the box after being warned not to, and unleashed a multitude of harmful spirits that inflicted plagues, diseases, and illnesses on mankind. Spirits of greed, envy, hatred, mistrust, sorrow, anger, revenge, lust, and despair scattered far and wide looking for humans to torment. Inside the box, however, there was also an unreleased healing spirit named Hope. From ancient times, people have recognized that a spirit of hope had the power to heal afflictions and helps them bear times of great suffering, illnesses, disasters, loss, and pain caused by the malevolent spirits and events.[47] In Hesiod's Works and Days, the personification of hope is named Elpis.

Norse mythology however considered Hope (Vön) to be the slobber dripping from the mouth of Fenris Wolf:[48] their concept of courage rated most highly a cheerful bravery in the absence of hope.[49]

In religion

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Hope is a key concept in most major world religions, often signifying the "hoper" believes an individual or a collective group will reach a concept of heaven. Depending on the religion, hope can be seen as a prerequisite for and/or byproduct of spiritual attainment.

Judaism

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The Jewish Encyclopedia notes "tiḳwah" (תקווה) and "seber" as terms for hope, adding that "miḳweh" and "kislah" denote the related concept of "trust" and that "toḥelet" signifies "expectation".[50]

Christianity

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Main article: Hope (virtue)
People collecting the miraculous water in Lourdes, France

Hope is one of the three theological virtues of the Christian religion,[51] alongside faith and love.[52] "Hope" in the Holy Bible means "a strong and confident expectation" of future reward (see Titus 1:2). In modern terms, hope is akin to trust and a confident expectation".[53] Paul the Apostle argued that Christ was a source of hope for Christians: "For in this hope we have been saved"[53] (see Romans 8:24).

According to the Holman Bible Dictionary, hope is a "trustful expectation...the anticipation of a favorable outcome under God's guidance."[54] In The Pilgrim's Progress, it is Hopeful who comforts Christian in Doubting Castle; while conversely at the entrance to Dante's Hell were the words, "Lay down all hope, you that go in by me".[55]

Hinduism

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In historic literature of Hinduism, hope is referred to with Pratidhi (Sanskrit: प्रतिधी),[56] or Apêksh (Sanskrit: अपेक्ष).[57][58] It is discussed with the concepts of desire and wish. In Vedic philosophy, karma was linked to ritual sacrifices (yajna), hope and success linked to correct performance of these rituals.[59][60] In Vishnu Smriti, the image of hope, morals and work is represented as the virtuous man who rides in a chariot directed by his hopeful mind to his desired wishes, drawn by his five senses, who keeps the chariot on the path of the virtuous, and thus is not distracted by the wrongs such as wrath, greed, and other vices.[61]

In the centuries that followed, the concept of karma changed from sacramental rituals to actual human action that builds and serves society and human existence[59][60]–a philosophy epitomized in the Bhagavad Gita. Hope, in the structure of beliefs and motivations, is a long-term karmic concept. In Hindu belief, actions have consequences, and while one's effort and work may or may not bear near term fruits, it will serve the good, that the journey of one's diligent efforts (karma) and how one pursues the journey,[62] sooner or later leads to bliss and moksha.[59][63][64]

Buddhism

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Buddhism's teachings are centered around the concept of hope. It puts those who are suffering on a path to a more harmonious world and better well-being. Hope acts as a light to those who are lost or suffering. Factors of Saddha (faith), wisdom, and aspiration work together to form practical hope. Practical hope is the foundation of putting those suffering on a path toward inner freedom and holistic well-being. It instills the belief in positive outcomes even in the midst of suffering and adversity.[65]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Hope

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from Grokipedia

Hope is a cognitive-motivational construct defined as the perceived capability to derive pathways to desired goals and to motivate oneself via agency thinking to use those pathways. This framework, central to , emphasizes goal-directed cognition over mere emotional optimism, involving the identification of multiple routes to objectives and the willpower to pursue them despite uncertainty or setbacks. Empirical research consistently links higher hope levels to adaptive outcomes, including reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety, elevated , and enhanced physical behaviors such as exercise adherence. Studies indicate that hope functions as a protective factor during adversity, like the , by mitigating cognitive impairments and fostering resilience through and . In contrast to passive wishing, hope's active components—pathways and agency—drive behavioral , contributing to academic, athletic, and across diverse populations. Philosophically, hope has been analyzed as a rational attitude toward future possibilities, distinct from irrational , with thinkers like Kant tying it to moral duty and enduring . While cultural depictions, such as in where hope endures as the last remnant in , underscore its role in human survival amid calamity, modern prioritizes measurable psychological mechanisms over interpretive narratives. This empirical focus reveals hope's causal role in promoting proactive adaptation rather than mere sentiment, though excessive reliance on improbable outcomes can border on if unanchored in realistic appraisal.

Conceptual Foundations

Etymology and Linguistic Origins

The English noun hope, denoting expectation or desire for a positive outcome, originates from hopa, first attested in texts from before 1150 CE, signifying or trust, often in a religious context such as reliance on . The corresponding verb hopian, meaning "to wish, expect, or look forward," shares this root and appears in early Germanic sources with similar connotations of anticipated fulfillment. Both derive from Proto-Germanic *hupōną or *hōpōną, a reconstructive form implying an emotional leaning toward future possibility, though the precise mechanism—whether from a sense of "bending toward" an object of desire or another semantic shift—remains debated among linguists due to sparse early attestations. Cognates in other Germanic languages reinforce this lineage, including Old Norse hopa ("to hope"), Middle Dutch hopen, and Middle High German hoffen, all evolving from the same Proto-Germanic base and retaining nuances of expectant trust by the medieval period. Unlike many Indo-European terms for abstract emotions, hope lacks a clear Proto-Indo-European antecedent; proposed links to roots like *kau- ("to bend" or "curve," evoking directed anticipation) are speculative and unsupported by comparative morphology across branches. This Germanic isolation suggests hope may represent a innovation within the family, distinct from non-cognate equivalents in other Indo-European languages, such as Latin spēs (from *spēi- "to thrive" or "prosper," emphasizing prosperous expectation) or Ancient Greek ἐλπίς (elpis, possibly from *wel- "to wish," tied to longing rather than assured confidence). In non-Indo-European contexts, linguistic parallels emerge independently, as in Hebrew yāḥal (root יָחַל), connoting patient waiting or confident anticipation grounded in covenantal promises, first documented in biblical texts around the BCE. These divergences highlight how "hope" as a crystallized through language-specific evolutions, often blending desire with probabilistic expectation rather than mere .

Core Definitions and Distinctions

Hope refers to a mental state characterized by the desire for a positive future outcome combined with a perceived possibility of its attainment, distinguishing it from mere wishing by incorporating elements of expectation and potential agency. In philosophical traditions, this is often framed as an attitude toward uncertain possibilities, where hope involves both affective desire and cognitive belief in feasibility, as opposed to certainty or impossibility. Aristotle characterized hope as "the dream of a waking man," emphasizing its role as a vigilant anticipation rather than passive fantasy. In , the dominant framework is C.R. Snyder's hope theory, which defines hope as a involving two components: agency, or the motivational in one's capacity to initiate and sustain goal-directed actions, and pathways, or the ability to generate multiple strategies for achieving those goals. This model, developed in the and validated through empirical studies, positions hope as a higher-order cognitive orientation rather than a transient , enabling adaptive responses to challenges by fostering purposeful planning and persistence. Snyder's Adult Hope Scale, used in numerous peer-reviewed studies since 1991, operationalizes hope as goal-specific, with scores correlating to outcomes like and resilience, though critics note its emphasis on may underplay external constraints. Key distinctions clarify hope's unique position among related concepts. Hope differs from , which entails a general toward positive expectations across probable events with high personal control, whereas hope targets specific, often uncertain or low-control outcomes and functions more as an emotion-driven . Unlike , which remains passive and detached from realistic strategies or , hope requires active pathway generation and agency, transforming desire into directed effort; for instance, empirical models show hopeful individuals outperform wishful thinkers in attainment by devising alternative routes around obstacles. Hope also contrasts with , which often relies on trust in unprovable or assurances without necessitating personal pathways, though overlaps exist in contexts like religious hope where cognitive planning aligns with doctrinal expectations. Regarding its nature, hope is predominantly cognitive in contemporary psychological accounts, involving deliberate goal-setting and motivational appraisal, yet it elicits emotional valence—such as or —that amplifies behavioral outcomes, as evidenced by linking hope to activation for planning alongside limbic responses for affect. This dual aspect underscores hope's adaptive utility, but distinctions from pure emotions like highlight its forward-oriented, uncertainty-embracing quality over immediate hedonic states.

Historical and Philosophical Perspectives

Ancient and Classical Views

In ancient Greek mythology, hope was personified as Elpis, a daimona or spirit embodying expectation, often with ambivalent connotations. Hesiod's Works and Days, composed around 700 BCE, recounts how Zeus entrusted Pandora with a jar containing Elpis and other ills; upon opening it, the evils escaped to afflict humanity, but Elpis remained inside, interpreted variably as a blessing mitigating suffering or a deceptive force prolonging endurance of woes. This narrative reflects early Greek wariness toward hope, viewing it not as unequivocally positive but potentially aligned with misfortune, as Elpis was grouped among spirits like old age and toil rather than Olympian deities. Platonic philosophy treated hope (elpis) more favorably overall, integrating it into the pursuit of despite occasional skepticism. In the , hope motivates philosophers toward the and truth by anticipating intellectual fulfillment, fostering resilience against bodily distractions. The defines hope as a soul pleasure that anticipates future enjoyment with certainty, distinguishing true hope—grounded in reason—from illusory expectations, thus positioning it as a measured affective state aiding when aligned with knowledge. Plato's dialogues, such as the Timaeus, critique "gullible hope" instilled by gods as irrational, yet affirm rational hope's role in ethical progress. Aristotle analyzed elpis phenomenologically, linking "good hope" (euelpis) to courage and confidence amid uncertainty. In the Nicomachean Ethics and Rhetoric, he describes hoping well as involving awareness of future contingencies and personal vulnerability, requiring prior experience of fear to temper optimism realistically—without fear, mere confidence lacks true hope's depth. Aristotle differentiates elpis from virtues, treating it as an emotion involving probabilistic expectation of goods, essential for action in luck-dependent domains like warfare, yet prone to excess as rashness or deficiency as despair. This framework underscores hope's causal role in motivating deliberate choice under partial ignorance of outcomes. In Roman tradition, hope manifested as , a deified worshipped from the fifth century BCE, with temples dedicated during crises like the Gallic sack of Rome in 390 BCE and restored under . Livy's histories record vows to by consuls amid military setbacks, portraying her as a sustaining resolve and loyalty, often invoked in political rhetoric to rally support for leaders promising restoration. Unlike Greek ambivalence, Roman emphasized protective foresight for progeny and state, symbolized by budding flora on coins, reflecting pragmatic optimism tied to empire-building rather than metaphysical ambiguity. Hellenistic philosophies like and , influencing , largely subordinated hope to rational control: Stoics viewed excessive future-oriented expectation as incompatible with acceptance of fate, prioritizing virtue over hoped-for externals, while Epicureans sought ataraxia by minimizing desires that breed hopeful anxiety.

Medieval to Enlightenment Developments

In medieval Christian theology, hope emerged as one of the three theological virtues—alongside faith and charity—infused directly by God to orient the soul toward eternal beatitude. Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica (completed around 1274), defined hope as an act of the will whereby a person confidently desires union with God as the ultimate good, relying on divine assistance for its attainment, since human powers alone suffice neither for the difficulty nor the possibility of this end. This virtue distinguished itself from mere natural hope or optimism by its supernatural object: not transient earthly goods, but the arduous yet divinely enabled path to everlasting happiness, countering despair through trust in God's omnipotence and mercy. Scholastic philosophers, building on Augustine's earlier emphasis on hope as a pilgrimage disposition for wayfarers en route to God, integrated it into a systematic moral framework where hope perfects the irascible appetite, bridging desire and rational confidence. During the Renaissance (circa 14th–17th centuries), began reframing hope by emphasizing human agency and , though often within a Christian context. Figures like (1304–1374) and (1466–1536) promoted studia humanitatis, fostering hope in personal and societal improvement through and ethical , rejecting medieval in favor of recoverable ancient wisdom. This yielded a dual hope: sacred hope retained theological roots, aspiring to divine harmony, while profane hope invested in earthly flourishing via reason and , as seen in Machiavelli's pragmatic realism (1513) that subordinated hope to calculated political action rather than blind faith. Christian humanists, however, subordinated secular aspirations to eschatological hope, viewing as a reflection of divine image rather than autonomous force. The Enlightenment (17th–18th centuries) secularized hope further, aligning it with rational optimism and empirical progress, detaching it from theological infusion toward probabilistic expectation grounded in evidence. Thinkers like David Hume (1711–1776) analyzed hope psychologically as a passion arising from pleasure mingled with uncertainty, diminishing in proportion to improbability, thus prioritizing evidential belief over mere desire. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), in his Critique of Practical Reason (1788), elevated hope to a postulate of pure practical reason, necessary for moral action amid antinomies of freedom and determinism, postulating God's existence and immortality not as dogmatic certainties but as rationally warranted assumptions sustaining duty-oriented striving. This era's broader optimism, exemplified in Voltaire's qualified endorsement of progress (despite Candide's 1759 satire on naive hope) and Condorcet's Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind (1795), framed hope as confidence in scientific and institutional reforms to alleviate suffering, though critics like Rousseau warned of its fragility against human corruption.

Modern and Contemporary Critiques

In , characterized hope as "the worst of all evils" because it prolongs human torments by offering illusory consolation that delays confrontation with reality's harshness, as articulated in (1878, §71). This view posits hope not as a but as a deceptive mechanism that sustains rather than fostering overcoming or acceptance. Nietzsche's critique extends to rejecting metaphysical or religious hopes, favoring instead a grounded expectation in for self-transformation, though even this risks becoming a rainbow-like inspiring yet unattainable ideals. Arthur Schopenhauer similarly critiqued hope as a cognitive distortion that fuels endless desire and inevitable disappointment, obstructing the negation of the will essential to transcending life's inherent suffering, as detailed in The World as Will and Representation (1818). In the 20th century, Albert Camus dismissed both religious and utopian hopes as absurd evasions, arguing in The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) that true lucidity demands rejecting hope's distractions to embrace the present's meaninglessness without illusion. These perspectives frame hope as epistemically unreliable, potentially paralyzing action by prioritizing fantasy over empirical engagement with causality. In contemporary , the "false hope " identifies a maladaptive cycle where individuals harbor overconfident, unrealistic expectations about the speed, ease, and extent of self-change—such as or formation—despite repeated past failures, leading to initial optimism followed by amplified distress upon relapse. Coined by Janet Polivy and C. Peter Herman in 2000, this phenomenon arises from early psychological rewards like perceived control, which overshadow evidence of infeasibility, perpetuating futile efforts in domains like dieting where success rates remain below 5% long-term. Empirical studies, including those on yo-yo dieting, show this correlates with heightened emotional volatility, as overinflated goals amplify defeat's impact compared to modest, evidence-based targets. Further psychological analyses highlight hope's resource drain and potential for passivity, where it consumes cognitive bandwidth without guaranteeing outcomes, particularly in protracted conflicts or chronic illnesses, fostering over preparation. For instance, excessive hope can inhibit proactive measures by substituting for rigorous planning, as seen in cases where patients forgo realistic treatments in favor of improbable cures, exacerbating vulnerability. Critics argue this passivity forfeits agency, turning hope into that justifies inaction, with empirical links to reduced when hopes prove unattainable, spiraling into deeper despair. Such findings underscore hope's dual-edged , demanding discernment between grounded and epistemically unjustified to avoid causal pitfalls like prolonged stagnation.

Biological and Evolutionary Underpinnings

Evolutionary Function of Hope

Hope functions evolutionarily to sustain motivation and effort toward goals with uncertain outcomes, balancing persistence against the risks of premature abandonment in probabilistic environments. In ancestral human contexts, where resources like food or mates were not guaranteed, hope would have promoted continued investment in high-variance pursuits—such as tracking elusive game or negotiating social alliances—rather than immediate capitulation, thereby increasing chances of reproductive success over rivals who desisted too readily. This adaptive role aligns with broader evolutionary theories of emotions as mechanisms for regulating behavior to maximize fitness, where unchecked quitting could lead to starvation or isolation, while blind persistence might exhaust limited energy reserves. Randolph M. Nesse proposes that hope and despair coevolved as paired states triggered by appraisals of future success probabilities: hope activates when efforts appear likely to yield results, energizing cognitive planning, emotional resilience, and motor actions to bridge discrepancies, whereas despair enforces disengagement from improbable ventures to redirect resources elsewhere. This optimizes under , as evidenced by comparative analyses of emotional functions across , where analogous motivational shifts (e.g., renewed after partial failures) enhance without requiring conscious . would favor such traits, as individuals exhibiting calibrated hope demonstrated higher net gains in variable environments compared to those dominated by or . The emergence of hope correlates with Homo sapiens' enhanced capabilities around 300,000 years ago, enabling future-oriented imagination that conferred advantages over earlier hominids like , who lacked comparable foresight for navigating adversity. This cognitive-emotional integration manifests as a tool, combining knowledge-based pathways with affective drive to overcome obstacles, as seen in documented cases of prolonged human endurance under duress. While direct evidence is absent, cross-species persistence behaviors and human psychological data support hope's role in fostering adaptive flexibility, though its overactivation risks maladaptive in truly hopeless scenarios.

Neuroscientific and Physiological Mechanisms

Neuroimaging research identifies the prefrontal cortex, particularly the medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC), as a core neural substrate for trait hope, a stable disposition involving goal-directed agency and pathways thinking. Resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) studies of 231 adolescents revealed that higher trait hope corresponds to lower fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (fALFF) in the bilateral mOFC, indicating reduced spontaneous neural activity in this region associated with reward processing, motivation, and emotional valuation. This pattern suggests a mechanism whereby hope buffers against anxiety by modulating mOFC hyperactivity, with mediation analyses confirming that trait hope accounts for the inverse relationship between mOFC activity and anxiety symptom severity, independent of general affect. Complementary structural MRI evidence links trait hope to increased gray matter volume in the left (SMA), a region involved in action planning and , supporting the motivational execution of hopeful pathways. Broader prefrontal networks, including the () and rostral (), overlap with hope processing during tasks requiring future projection and adaptive emotional appraisal. These findings align with hope's cognitive demands, engaging for goal anticipation distinct from mere . At the neurotransmitter level, hope's anticipatory quality implicates signaling in mesolimbic reward pathways, where projections to the reinforce pursuit of uncertain positive outcomes, akin to reward prediction errors observed in studies. Supporting neuromodulators such as serotonin, oxytocin, and norepinephrine may underpin the positive affective tone of hope, facilitating resilience against threat via enhanced prefrontal control over limbic reactivity. Physiologically, these neural mechanisms translate to stress attenuation, with hope inversely associated with markers of chronic sympathetic activation, including elevated and , thereby promoting immune competence and cardiovascular stability through downregulated hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses. Longitudinal data indicate that sustained hope correlates with lower all-cause mortality risk, potentially via these pathways fostering adaptive behaviors and reduced sensitivity.

Psychological Theories and Empirical Research

Major Psychological Models

One of the most influential psychological models of hope is C. R. Snyder's Hope Theory, developed in the and refined through subsequent research. This cognitive framework defines hope as a positive motivational state derived from the perceived capability to generate pathways toward desired goals and to activate agency thinking to use those pathways. Central to the model are three key components: goals, which provide direction and serve as the anchors for hopeful thought; pathways thinking, involving the mental generation of multiple routes to achieve goals and circumvent obstacles; and agency thinking, encompassing the motivational energy or willpower to initiate and sustain movement along those pathways. Snyder emphasized that hope emerges interactively from these elements, distinguishing it from related constructs like , which focuses more on positive expectations without the emphasis on . Empirical validation of Hope Theory has been achieved through instruments such as the Adult Trait Hope Scale, a 12-item self-report measure assessing agency and pathways subscales, which has demonstrated reliability (Cronbach's alpha typically above 0.80) and predictive validity for outcomes like academic achievement and psychological well-being in studies involving thousands of participants across diverse populations. For instance, longitudinal research shows that higher hope scores correlate with better coping under stress, as individuals with strong pathway cognition adapt more effectively to setbacks by devising alternatives rather than fixating on barriers. The model posits that low-hope individuals suffer deficits in both cognition and motivation, leading to passive responses, whereas high-hope profiles foster resilience through iterative goal pursuit. Alternative models exist but have garnered less empirical traction. For example, integrated hope into his stress and framework as an tied to uncertain but possible positive outcomes, emphasizing appraisal processes over Snyder's goal-directed . More recent proposals, such as the bidimensional model viewing hope as the intersection of wishes and expectations, aim to address cultural variations but remain conceptual rather than widely tested. Snyder's theory, however, dominates contemporary applications in due to its falsifiable predictions and integration with intervention programs that train pathway and agency skills, yielding measurable improvements in and .

Key Empirical Findings on Benefits and Outcomes

Empirical research, particularly within Snyder's hope theory framework—which posits hope as comprising agency (motivational drive) and pathways (planning ability) thinking—consistently links higher hope levels to adaptive psychological outcomes. Meta-analyses indicate that hope correlates positively with well-being indicators such as (r ≈ 0.40-0.50) and negatively with depression and anxiety symptoms, with effect sizes suggesting hope explains unique variance beyond or . In clinical contexts, hope enhancement interventions, including cognitive-behavioral strategies to bolster pathways and agency, yield moderate improvements in hopefulness (Hedges' g ≈ 0.30-0.50) and associated reductions in , as evidenced by randomized trials across non-clinical and therapeutic samples. In health domains, longitudinal studies demonstrate that dispositional hope predicts better physical behaviors, such as adherence to exercise and diet, and outcomes like reduced markers and improved among older adults, independent of baseline health status. For instance, higher hope at baseline correlates with lower incidence of chronic disease progression over 2-5 years, potentially via enhanced and reduced stress reactivity. Among adolescents and those facing adversity, hope buffers against and promotes resilience, with meta-analytic evidence showing inverse associations (r ≈ -0.20 to -0.30) that hold across diverse populations. Academic and achievement-related findings underscore hope's role in goal pursuit. Meta-analyses of student samples reveal that hope predicts higher grade point averages (β ≈ 0.20-0.30), greater , and persistence, outperforming IQ or prior achievement in some predictive models. In workplace settings, hope facets explain variance in job and , with pathways thinking particularly tied to proactive behaviors and reduced burnout. Recent intervention studies (2020-2024) confirm that hope-focused programs, such as 8-week curricula emphasizing -setting, enhance school adaptation and emotional , with effect sizes comparable to established resilience training. These patterns persist cross-culturally, though effect magnitudes vary by contextual stressors, highlighting hope's causal role in fostering agency amid .

Measurement Tools and Recent Studies (2020-2025)

The Adult Hope Scale (AHS), developed by C. R. Snyder and colleagues, is a widely used 12-item self-report instrument assessing dispositional hope through two subscales: agency (goal-directed determination) and pathways (planning to meet goals). reliability coefficients for the AHS typically range from 0.70 to 0.90 across subscales and total scores, with test-retest reliability over 8-10 weeks around 0.80. is supported by positive correlations with and measures (r ≈ 0.50-0.70) and negative correlations with depression symptoms. The scale has demonstrated structural validity in diverse populations, including older adults, though some studies note modest test-retest stability in short-term assessments (r = 0.57-0.89). The Herth Hope Index (HHI), a 12-item scale by Kay Herth, measures multidimensional hope encompassing temporality/future orientation, positive readiness/expectancy, and interconnectedness, particularly in clinical contexts like illness. Psychometric evaluations show values of 0.80-0.90 for , with evidence of through associations with and scales. is indicated by lower scores in high-stress groups, such as cancer patients, and the scale exhibits factorial invariance across and age in some adaptations. Short-form versions of both the AHS and HHI maintain acceptable reliability (α > 0.70) for brief assessments. Recent studies from 2020 to 2025 using these tools have linked higher hope scores to improved outcomes. A 2024 study found that dispositional hope, measured via the AHS, predicted greater life meaning independent of other positive , with hope explaining unique variance in meaningfulness ratings (β ≈ 0.20). In a 2025 investigation of older adults, hope-based interventions increased HHI scores by 15-20%, correlating with enhanced and future time perspective (p < 0.01). Among students, AHS-assessed hope mediated academic thriving and adaptive , buffering stress and predicting higher adjustment (r = 0.40-0.55). A 2025 trial of in schools, employing customized hope scales, yielded moderate effect sizes (d = 0.50) for improvements post-intervention. These findings underscore hope's causal role in resilience, though longitudinal designs are needed to rule out reverse causation.

Applications in Health, Therapy, and Society

Clinical and Therapeutic Interventions

Hope therapy, a cognitive-behavioral intervention derived from C.R. Snyder's hope theory, systematically targets the enhancement of hopeful thinking by fostering goal-directed determination (agency) and flexible planning (pathways) to achieve personal objectives. Typically delivered in eight sessions, either individually or in groups, it involves exercises such as articulating specific, attainable goals; brainstorming multiple routes to goal attainment; and reinforcing motivational strategies to overcome obstacles. This approach posits that low hope contributes to like depression, and elevating hope levels facilitates therapeutic change by improving problem-solving and resilience. In clinical practice, hope interventions are integrated into treatments for mood disorders, with patients guided to reframe negative expectations into actionable plans; for instance, one protocol requires listing goals followed by enumerating alternative pathways and potential barriers, which has been shown to boost hope scores and reduce depressive symptoms in randomized trials. Applications extend to chronic illness management and , where brief hope-fostering modules—such as narrative exercises emphasizing future possibilities—have demonstrated efficacy in elevating hope while mitigating anxiety and enhancing , per meta-analytic evidence from controlled studies. In youth , structured hope therapy curricula, spanning 8 weeks, improve adaptation and emotional regulation by embedding pathways thinking in school-based sessions. Empirical support underscores moderate to large effect sizes for hope enhancement strategies across clinical and settings; a of interventions aligned with Snyder's model found significant gains in hopefulness (Hedges' g ≈ 0.68), , and reduced , with effects persisting at follow-up. These outcomes hold transdiagnostically, as hope acts as a common mechanism in psychotherapies like CBT, where pathway generation bolsters adaptive coping without relying on disorder-specific protocols. However, efficacy varies by population, with stronger results in non-clinical samples than severe cases, necessitating adjunctive use with evidence-based treatments for profound hopelessness. Recent longitudinal data from 2024-2025 affirm hope's role in sustaining gains post-intervention, though long-term maintenance requires ongoing skill reinforcement.

Impacts in Education, Work, and Social Contexts

In educational settings, higher levels of hope, defined as the perceived capacity to generate pathways toward goals and motivate agency to pursue them, correlate positively with , , and persistence among students. A 2024 study of adolescents found that academic-specific hope explained unique variance in performance and goal attainment beyond general hope, with effect sizes indicating moderate . Meta-analytic evidence from 2017, updated in subsequent reviews, confirms hope's significant association with outcomes like grade point averages and scores across K-12 and higher education, independent of IQ or prior achievement. Longitudinal research tracking elementary to high school students demonstrates that initial hope levels prospectively predict later academic success, suggesting causal directionality through enhanced and problem-solving. Interventions fostering hope pathways have improved outcomes for at-risk youth, as per applications of Snyder's hope , which emphasizes teachable skills in goal clarification and obstacle navigation. In workplace contexts, hope contributes to employee , , and satisfaction by enabling adaptive responses to challenges. A of 45 studies revealed moderate positive correlations between hope and self-reported (r ≈ 0.30), supervisory ratings, and , with hope outperforming some traits like in . This holds across industries, where hopeful employees exhibit greater initiative in pathway generation during setbacks, reducing turnover intentions. Psychological capital models incorporating hope as a core component show aggregated effects on desirable behaviors, including a 2011 linking it to higher and lower . Recent applications, such as hope training for human service workers, mitigate burnout and enhance efficacy, with statistically significant gains in metrics post-intervention. Socially, hope bolsters interpersonal relationships and by mediating the effects of support networks on adaptive . Empirical studies indicate that hope amplifies the benefits of in building , particularly in adversity, as seen in 2024 research on patients where hope partially mediated links between support, , and recovery outcomes. In community settings, collective hope correlates with sustained and during crises, such as pandemics, transcending cultural boundaries and fostering prosocial behaviors. For adolescents, hope interacts with family and to predict resilience against stressors, with path analyses showing independent and joint effects on emotional regulation. These dynamics underscore hope's role in causal chains from individual agency to group-level stability, though excessive without pathways can strain relations if unfulfilled.

Criticisms, Risks, and Debates

Epistemic and False Hope Concerns

False hope refers to a state of hoping for an outcome that lacks epistemic justification, typically arising from , cognitive biases, or unjustified s in possibility despite contrary . Epistemically, such hope violates norms of by maintaining a in an outcome's attainability without sufficient evidential support, often conflating desire with probability. Philosophers like Spinoza have characterized hope as inherently irrational when rooted in false s about uncertain events, arguing it stems from inadequate understanding rather than reasoned assessment. In psychological contexts, the "false hope syndrome" describes repeated cycles of overoptimistic expectations for self-change, such as , leading to initial enthusiasm followed by failure and demoralization; empirical studies show participants exhibit inflated beliefs post-failure, perpetuating attempts with and heightened distress. This pattern correlates with poorer long-term outcomes, as unrealistic hopes discourage adaptive strategies like or realistic goal adjustment. Medically, false hope prompts patients to reject evidence-based prognoses, such as in terminal illnesses, fostering that delays and exacerbates suffering; research indicates it complicates treatment adherence and resource allocation, with interventions promising unattainable cures imposing additional harms like financial strain. In mental health recovery, sustaining false hope for improbable full remission can hinder engagement with maintenance therapies, as evidenced by longitudinal data linking overoptimism to relapse in conditions like . Philosophically, critics including Nietzsche view hope as a deferral of reality's harshness, potentially more debilitating than despair by promoting passivity over confrontation with causal constraints. Epistemic concerns extend to ideological domains, where hope becomes irrational if predicated on known impossibilities, undermining truth-seeking by prioritizing wishful scenarios over verifiable probabilities. While some defend calibrated hope, ungrounded variants risk , wherein agents shield themselves from disconfirming evidence, perpetuating errors in judgment.

Psychological and Behavioral Drawbacks

Excessive or unfounded hope can manifest as the "false hope syndrome," characterized by unrealistic expectations of rapid self-improvement, leading to cycles of overconfidence, initial success, subsequent failure, and renewed but misguided efforts. This pattern, identified by Polivy and Herman in studies on and habit change, results in heightened distress upon repeated defeats, as individuals attribute failures to insufficient effort rather than inherent difficulties, perpetuating maladaptive persistence. Empirically, participants in self-change attempts exhibit inflated predictions of success likelihood and speed, with failure rates exceeding 90% in contexts, exacerbating and reducing long-term efficacy. Hope intertwined with contributes to behavioral risks by prompting underestimation of negative outcomes, fostering inadequate in . In , this manifests as over-optimism leading to reckless actions, such as insufficient financial planning or health precautions, where individuals overestimate positive probabilities by up to 30-50% in personal forecasts. For instance, excessive hope in economic recovery scenarios has been linked to delayed adaptive behaviors during downturns, amplifying losses as evidenced in analyses of overconfidence during market bubbles. Sustained hope without realistic pathways demands significant cognitive resources, potentially leading to motivational deficits and psychological fatigue. Research indicates that prolonged hopeful states in unresolved conflicts or unattainable goals correlate with reduced agency and increased passivity over time, as initial motivational boosts wane without progress, yielding disillusionment and lowered resilience. In clinical settings, unfounded hope in terminal conditions may delay , prolonging by hindering palliative shifts, though empirical quantification remains debated due to variables like individual styles.

Philosophical Objections to Hope

In ancient Greek mythology, as recounted by Hesiod in Works and Days (c. 700 BCE), hope (elpis) remains trapped in Pandora's jar after all evils are released into the world, leading some philosophers to interpret it as the most insidious affliction because it sustains false expectations amid inevitable hardship. This view posits that hope deceives individuals into anticipating relief that rarely materializes, thereby exacerbating suffering rather than alleviating it, akin to a prolonged torment that prevents resignation to reality. Stoic philosophers, such as (c. 50–135 CE), objected to hope on grounds that it entails desiring outcomes beyond human control, fostering anxiety and disillusionment when events unfold otherwise. In the Enchiridion, instructs practitioners to align wishes with what actually occurs, rejecting hopeful projections as irrational attachments that undermine tranquility (ataraxia). This critique emphasizes causal realism: since external events depend on factors outside one's influence, hope represents a cognitive error that invites emotional volatility, preferring instead premeditatio malorum—anticipating adversity without emotional investment in avoidance. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) further condemned hope as a psychological illusion rooted in the insatiable will to , which confuses subjective desire with objective probability, thereby perpetuating cycles of striving and disappointment. In Parerga and Paralipomena (1851), he describes hope as "the confusion of the desire for a thing with its probability," arguing it amplifies by sustaining futile pursuits within a world characterized by inevitable frustration. Schopenhauer's holds that hope, far from motivating constructive action, binds individuals to the blind, restless will, delaying the ascetic denial necessary for genuine respite from existential pain. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) echoed and intensified this objection, declaring in (1878) that "hope in reality is the worst of all evils because it prolongs the torments of man." He viewed hope as a consolation for the weak, postponing confrontation with life's harsh truths and thus inhibiting the affirmative strength required for overcoming . Nietzsche's targets hope's role in slave morality, where it serves as a deferred promise of or redemption, contrasting with the robust —love of fate—that embraces actuality without escapist longing.

Cultural, Religious, and Symbolic Representations

Hope in Major Religions

In , hope constitutes one of the three alongside and , characterized as a firm expectation of eternal life grounded in Christ's and God's covenants, rather than uncertain wishing. Romans 8:24-25 portrays hope as eagerly awaiting unseen fulfillment through the Holy Spirit's assurance, enabling endurance amid . This eschatological orientation distinguishes Christian hope from secular , emphasizing divine promises like those in 6:19, where it serves as an for the soul. Theologians such as , in works reflecting on post-World War II theology, frame it as active resistance to despair through anticipated renewal. In , hope (raja') integrates with and submission to , urging believers against despair in , as exemplified in 39:53: "O My servants who have transgressed against themselves, do not despair of the mercy of . Indeed, forgives all sins." This is reinforced in 12:87, where advises his sons: "Do not lose hope in the mercy of ; none loses hope in 's mercy except the disbelieving people." Such verses link hope to and perseverance, countering by promising ease after hardship, as in 94:5-6: "For indeed, with hardship [will be] ease." Islamic interprets this as conditional on righteous action, avoiding presumption on unearned . Judaism conceptualizes hope (tikvah) as proactive agency against adversity, rooted in covenantal history and the prophetic tradition of redemption, exemplified by narrative's triumph over enslavement. Unlike passive waiting, it demands teshuvah (return) and ethical effort, as Rabbi Jonathan Sacks distinguishes: optimism assumes improvement without intervention, while hope entails human responsibility to enact moral progress. Psalms 42:5 exhorts: "Why are you cast down, O my soul? Hope in ," reflecting personal resolve amid or . Post-Holocaust thinkers like invoke it as a commandment to affirm Jewish survival against annihilation, preserving messianic anticipation without utopian illusion. In Hinduism, hope manifests as āśā (expectation or desire), often critiqued in Upanishadic and Bhagavad Gita teachings as a chain binding the soul to saṃsāra through attachment to outcomes, fostering potential misery via unfulfilled cravings. The Gita (5:21) advises transcending external hopes by realizing inner bliss (ātmarati), prioritizing karma yoga—selfless action—over wishful reliance on divine intervention. While bhakti traditions evoke hope in deities like Krishna for mokṣa (liberation), it remains subordinate to dharma and detachment, with despair addressed through surrender (prapatti) rather than sustained hoping. Scriptural narratives, such as Rama's trials in the Ramayana, illustrate resilience via duty, not optimistic projection. Buddhism largely reframes hope as rewa (Tibetan), intertwined with fear (dokpa) and desire (), which perpetuate (suffering) by fixating on impermanent conditions; the warns against such clinging, advocating instead aspiration (chanda) toward nirvāṇa via the Eightfold Path. texts emphasize over hopeful anticipation, viewing ordinary hope as delusory, as notes: it props up egoic lack, delaying into interdependence. traditions introduce "wise hope" as grounded confidence in and practice, fostering perseverance without attachment, as in Shantideva's Bodhicaryāvatāra, which urges cultivating vast intention amid obstacles. This pragmatic stance prioritizes direct realization over eschatological promises.

In Literature, Mythology, and Art

In Greek mythology, the concept of hope is prominently featured in Hesiod's Works and Days, composed around 700 BCE, where the daimona Elpis remains sealed in Pandora's pithos after she unleashes toil, disease, and other afflictions upon humanity. Elpis, personifying expectation or anticipation, was the sole entity not released, prompting scholarly debate on its valence: some ancient contexts treat elpis as a potential evil akin to false anticipation of relief, while later interpretations frame it as a mitigating good that sustains endurance amid inevitable suffering. This ambiguity underscores hope's dual role in mythological narratives, neither wholly benevolent nor malevolent, but as a lingering uncertainty in the human condition. The Pandora myth recurs in literary traditions as a foundational for hope's tenacity, influencing retellings in classical and later works that explore human resilience against calamity. In visual art, hope is allegorized through symbolic figures enduring precarity; ' Symbolist oil painting Hope (1886) depicts a blindfolded woman perched on a terrestrial , her ear pressed to a with only one string intact, evoking strained attentiveness to faint possibility amid desolation. This Victorian-era work, completed in multiple versions, conveys aspiration's quiet persistence, drawing from biblical and classical motifs to inspire viewers during social upheavals. Similarly, Gustav Klimt's Hope II (1907–1908) renders hope with fin-de-siècle unease, showing a kneeling pregnant woman cradling a fetal against her abdomen, flanked by mourning figures, to symbolize precarious expectation shadowed by mortality. Such artworks, rooted in allegorical traditions, visualize hope not as triumphant optimism but as fraught vigilance in the face of existential threat.

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