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Isaiah, an important Biblical prophet, in fresco on the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo

In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people.[1][2] The message that the prophet conveys is called a prophecy.

Prophethood has existed in many cultures and religions throughout history, including Mesopotamian religion, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Manichaeism, Islam, the Baháʼí Faith, and Thelema.

Etymology

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The English word prophet is the transliteration of a compound Greek word derived from pro (before/toward) and phesein (to tell); thus, a προφήτης (prophḗtēs) is someone who conveys messages from the divine to humans, including occasionally foretelling future events. In a different interpretation, it means advocate or speaker. It is used to translate the Hebrew word נָבִיא (nāvî) in the Septuagint and the Arabic word نبي (nabī). W.F. Albright points to the Akkadian Nabu for the origin of these Hebrew (נָבִיא (nāvî) and the Arabic نبي (nabī) words.[3]

The Akkadian nabû means "announcer" or "authorised person",[4] derived from the Semitic root n-b-y or nbʾ.[5] It is cognate with Classical Syriac: ܢܒܝܐ, romanized: nəḇiyyā, Arabic: نبي, romanized: nabiyy, and Hebrew: נביא, romanized: nāḇī,[6] all meaning 'prophet'.

In Hebrew, the word נָבִיא (nāvî), "spokesperson", traditionally translates as "prophet". The second subdivision of the Tanakh, Nevi'im, is devoted to the Hebrew prophets. The meaning of navi is perhaps described in Deuteronomy 18:18,[7] where God said, "...and I will put My words in his mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him." Thus, a navi was thought to be the "mouth" of God. A Jewish tradition was that the root nun-bet-alef ("navi") is based on the two-letter root nun-bet which denotes hollowness or openness; to receive transcendental wisdom, one must make oneself "open".[8]

Mesopotamian origins

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Main article: Sumerian religion
See also: Nabu
Late Assyrian seal. Worshipper between Nabu and Marduk, standing on their servant dragon Mušḫuššu, eighth century BCE.

Before the advent of Zoroastrianism and the prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster, various ancient civilizations had individuals who served as intermediaries between humanity and the divine. In ancient Sumer, for instance, figures such as the "ensi" or "lugal" fulfilled roles akin to prophets, offering guidance and interpreting divine will through rituals, omens, and prayers. The ensi was considered a representative of the city-state's patron deity.[9] The functions of a lugal would include certain ceremonial and cultic activities, arbitration in border disputes, and military defence against external enemies.[10][11] The ensis of Lagash would sometimes refer to the city's patron deity, Ningirsu, as their lugal ("master"). All of the above is connected to the possibly priestly or sacral character of the titles ensi[12] and especially en (the latter term continuing to designate priests in subsequent times).

These prophets, while lacking the systematic theological framework found in later traditions, laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood by demonstrating a connection with the divine and providing spiritual leadership within their communities. Despite the absence of codified scripture or organized religious institutions, these pre-Zoroastrian prophetic figures played a crucial role in shaping early religious thought and practices, paving the way for the structured prophetic tradition that emerged with Zoroaster and subsequent religious traditions.

Zoroastrianism

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Main article: Zoroaster
3rd-century Mithraic depiction of Zoroaster found in Dura Europos, Syria by Franz Cumont

Zoroastrianism holds a significant position in shaping the concept of prophets and prophecy. Founded by the revered figure Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Persia around the 6th century BCE, Zoroastrianism introduced fundamental ideas that profoundly influenced subsequent religious and philosophical traditions, particularly in its portrayal of prophetic figures.[13]

At the heart of Zoroastrian belief lies the concept of a singular supreme deity, Ahura Mazda, engaged in an eternal struggle against the forces of darkness and chaos, embodied by Angra Mainyu. Zoroaster, as the primary prophet of this faith, received divine revelations and visions from Ahura Mazda, which formed the basis of the Avesta, the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism.[14]

Zoroaster's role as a prophet established a template for future religious leaders and visionaries. He articulated monotheistic principles, ethical dualism, and the idea of a cosmic battle between good and evil, influencing not only the religious landscape of ancient Persia but also later traditions such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Thelema.[15]

The legacy of Zoroastrianism in shaping the understanding of prophets is profound. Zoroaster's direct communication with the divine, his role as a mediator between humanity and the divine will, and his teachings about moral righteousness laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood as it evolved in subsequent religious traditions.[16]

Influence from Zoroastrian thought can be seen in the characterization of prophets as individuals chosen by a single supreme deity to convey divine messages, guide communities, and uphold moral principles. The structured prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster set a precedent for future prophets, shaping how societies perceive and interact with visionary figures throughout history.[17]

While other ancient civilizations may have had individuals who served similar functions, Zoroastrianism's systematic approach to prophecy and its enduring influence on subsequent religious thought solidified its place in history as a foundational example of prophetic tradition, enriching humanity's understanding of the divine and the role of prophets in conveying its will.[16]

Judaism

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See also: Nevi'im and Prophets in Judaism
Malachi, one of the last prophets of Israel, painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, c. 1310 (Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Siena Cathedral). "He [Mashiach] will turn the hearts of the parents to their children, and the hearts of the children to their parents" (Malachi 4:6)[18]

Some examples of prophets in the Tanakh include Abraham, Moses, Miriam, Isaiah, Samuel, Ezekiel, Malachi, and Job. Moses is considered the most important prophet in Judaism.[19][20] On one occasion during the Exodus journey, "the spirit which was upon Moses" was passed to seventy elders, who were also able to prophesy for one time only, but mostly they could not prophesy again.[21] Moses expressed the hope that "all the LORD's people" could be prophets.[22] In addition to writing and speaking messages from God, Israelite or Judean nevi'im ("spokespersons", "prophets") often acted out prophetic parables in their life.[23] For example, in order to contrast the people's disobedience with the obedience of the Rechabites, God has Jeremiah invite the Rechabites to drink wine, in disobedience to their ancestor's command. The Rechabites refuse, for which God commends them.[24][25] Other prophetic parables acted out by Jeremiah include burying a linen belt so that it gets ruined to illustrate how God intends to ruin Judah's pride.[26][27][28] Likewise, Jeremiah buys a clay jar and smashes it in the Valley of Ben Hinnom in front of elders and priests to illustrate that God will smash the nation of Judah and the city of Judah beyond repair.[29] God instructs Jeremiah to make a yoke from wood and leather straps and to put it on his own neck to demonstrate how God will put the nation under the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon.[30] In a similar way, the prophet Isaiah had to walk stripped and barefoot for three years to illustrate the coming captivity,[31] and the prophet Ezekiel had to lie on his side for 390 days and to eat measured food to illustrate the coming siege.[32]

Prophetic assignment is usually portrayed as rigorous and exacting in the Hebrew Bible,[33][34][35] and prophets were often the target of persecution and opposition.[36] God's personal prediction for Jeremiah, "And they shall fight against thee; but they shall not prevail against thee,"[37] was performed many times in the biblical narrative as Jeremiah warned of destruction of those who continued to refuse repentance and accept more moderate consequences.[36][38] In return for his adherence to God's discipline and speaking God's words, Jeremiah was attacked by his own brothers,[39] beaten and put into the stocks by a priest and false prophet,[40][41] imprisoned by the king,[42] threatened with death,[43] thrown into a cistern by Judah's officials,[44] and opposed by a false prophet.[45] Likewise, Isaiah was told by his hearers who rejected his message, "Leave the way! Get off the path! Let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel!"[34][46] The life of Moses being threatened by Pharaoh is another example.[47]

According to I Samuel 9:9,[48] the old name for navi is ro'eh, רֹאֶה, which literally means "seer". That could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. L. C. Allen (1971) comments that in the First Temple Era, there were essentially seer-priests belonging to a guild, who performed divination, rituals, and sacrifices, and were scribes; and beside these were canonical prophets, who did none of these things (and condemned divination), but came to deliver a message.[49] The seer-priests were usually attached to a local shrine or temple, such as Shiloh, and initiated others into that priesthood, acting as a mystical craft-guild with apprentices and recruitment. Canonical prophets were not organised this way.

Jewish tradition - unlike Christian and Islamic practice - does not regard Daniel as a prophet.

A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as the number which left Egypt, which would make 1,200,000 prophets.[50] The Talmud recognizes 48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to humankind.[50] According to the Talmud, there were also seven women counted as prophetesses whose message bears relevance for all generations: Sarah, Miriam, Devorah, Hannah (mother of the prophet Samuel), Abigail (a wife of King David), Huldah (from the time of Jeremiah), and Esther.[50] The Talmudic and Biblical commentator Rashi points out that Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah were also prophets.[51] Isaiah 8:3-4[52] refers to Isaiah's wife, who bore his son Maher-shalal-hash-baz as "the prophetess"; she is not referred to elsewhere.

Prophets in the Tanakh are not always Jews;[50] note for example the non-Jewish prophet Balaam in Numbers 22.[53] According to the Talmud, Obadiah is said to have been a convert to Judaism.

The last nevi'im mentioned in the Jewish Bible are Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, all of whom lived at the end of the 70-year Babylonian exile of c. 586 to 539 BCE. The Talmud (Sanhedrin 11a) states that Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, and later times have known only the "Bath Kol" (בת קול, lit. daughter of a voice, "voice of God").

Christianity

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Main article: Prophets in Christianity

Traditional definitions

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The Vision of Isaiah is depicted in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld.

In Christianity, a prophet (or seer) is one inspired by God through the Holy Spirit to deliver a message. This includes Jewish prophets active before the church began and the prophets active in the Christian church. Some Christian denominations limit a prophet's message to words intended only for active members of a congregation, excluding social or political messages. However, the Bible has several occasions in which prophets were called to deliver social or political messages.[54] The reception of a message is termed revelation and the delivery of the message is termed prophecy.

The term "prophet" applies to those who receive public or private revelation. Public revelation, in Catholicism, is part of the Deposit of faith, the revelation of which was completed by Jesus; whereas private revelation does not add to the Deposit. The term "deposit of faith" refers to the entirety of Jesus Christ's revelation, and is passed to successive generations through scripture and the traditions of the church.

The Bible applies the appellation 'false prophet' to anyone who preaches a Gospel contrary to that delivered to the apostles and recorded in Sacred Scripture.[55] One Old Testament text in Deuteronomy[56] contains a warning against those who prophesy events which do not come to pass and says they should be put to death. Elsewhere a false prophet may be someone who is purposely trying to deceive, is delusional, under the influence of Satan or is speaking from his own spirit.[57]

Catholicism

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Six of the Minor Prophets are commemorated in December. Each encouraged people to return to God, to repent of past sins, and to recognize God's presence even in their difficulties.[58]

"Jesus Christ is the one whom the Father anointed with the Holy Spirit and established as priest, prophet, and king. The whole People of God participates in these three offices of Christ and bears the responsibilities for mission and service that flow from them."[59] The laity act prophetically when they speak the truth, and live the Gospel by example before their families, neighbors, and co-workers.[60] The Old Testament prophets defended the poor and powerless "and inspire Catholic Social Teaching on the preferential option for the poor, workers’ rights, and justice and peace."[61]

Ongoing prophecy

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St. John the Baptist Preaching, c. 1665, by Mattia Preti

Christians who believe that the Holy Spirit continues to give spiritual gifts to Christians are known as continuationists.[62][63] These charismata may include prophecy, tongues, miraculous healing ability, and discernment (Matthew 12:32 KJV "Whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of Man, it shall be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come.").[63] Cessationists believe that these gifts were given only in New Testament times and that they ceased after the last apostle died.[63]

The last prophet of the Old Covenant before the arrival of Jesus is John the Baptist.[64][65] New Testament passages that explicitly discuss prophets existing after the death and resurrection of Christ include Revelation 11:10,[66] Matthew 10:40–41 and 23:34,[67] John 13:20 and 15:20[68] and Acts 11:25–30, 13:1 and 15:32.[69]

The Didache gives extensive instruction in how to distinguish between true and false prophets, as well as commands regarding tithes to prophets in the church.[70] Irenaeus, wrote of 2nd-century believers with the gift of prophecy,[71] while Justin Martyr argued in his Dialogue with Trypho that prophets were not found among the Jews in his time, but that the church had prophets.[72] The Shepherd of Hermas describes revelation in a vision regarding the proper operation of prophecy in the church.[73] Eusebius mentions that Quadratus and Ammia of Philadelphia were both prominent prophets following the age of the Twelve Apostles.[74][75] Tertullian, writing of the church meetings of the Montanists (to whom he belonged), described in detail the practice of prophecy in the 2nd-century church.[76]

A number of later Christian saints were said to have powers of prophecy, such as Columba of Iona (521–597), Saint Malachy (1094–1148) or Padre Pio (1887–1968).[77] Marian apparitions like those at Fatima in 1917 or at Kibeho in Rwanda in the 1980s often included prophetic predictions regarding the future of the world as well as of the local areas they occurred in.[78]

Prophetic movements in particular can be traced throughout the Christian Church's history, expressing themselves in (for example) Montanism, Novatianism, Donatism, Franciscanism, Anabaptism, Camisard enthusiasm, Puritanism, Quakerism, Quietism, Lutheranism[79] and Radical Pietism. Modern Pentecostals and Charismatics, members of movements which together comprised approximately 584 million people as of 2011,[80] believe in the contemporary function of the gift of prophecy, and some in these movements, especially those within the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, allow for idea that God may continue to gift the church with some individuals who are prophets.

Some Christian sects recognize the existence of "modern-day" prophets. One such denomination is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which teaches that God still communicates with humankind through prophecy.[81]

Latter Day Saint movement

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A portrait of Joseph Smith
Main articles: Prophet, seer, and revelator; List of Book of Mormon prophets; President of the Church; and Revelation (Latter Day Saints)

Joseph Smith, who established the Church of Christ in 1830, is considered a prophet by members of the Latter Day Saint movement, of which the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest denomination. Additionally, many churches within the movement believe in a succession of modern prophets (accepted by Latter Day Saints as "prophets, seers, and revelators") since the time of Joseph Smith, Dallin H. Oaks is the current Prophet and President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Adventism

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Baptist preacher William Miller is credited with beginning the mid-19th century North American religious movement now known as Adventism. He announced a Second Coming, resulting in the Great Disappointment.

Seventh-day Adventist

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Main article: Inspiration of Ellen G. White

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, which was established in 1863, believes that Ellen G. White, one of the church's founders, was given the spiritual gift of prophecy.

Branch Davidians

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The Branch Davidians are a religious cult which was founded in 1959 by Benjamin Roden as an offshoot of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church. David Koresh, who died in the Waco Siege in 1993, called himself their final prophet and "the Son of God, the Lamb" in 1983.

Manichaeism

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Main articles: Manichaeism and Mani (prophet)
Sealstone of Mani, rock crystal, possibly 3rd century AD, Iraq. Cabinet des Médailles, Paris.[82][83] The seal reads "Mani, messenger of the messiah", and may have been used by Mani himself to sign his epistles.[84]

Mani[a] (Persian: مانی, c. April AD 216–2 March AD 274 or 26 February AD 277) was an Iranian[b] prophet and the founder of Manichaeism, a religion most prevalent in late antiquity.

Mani was born in or near Seleucia-Ctesiphon (south of modern Baghdad) in Mesopotamia,[85] at the time part of the Parthian Empire. Seven of his major works were written in Syriac, and the eighth, dedicated to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I, was written in Middle Persian.[86] He died in Gundeshapur.

Manichaeism teaches an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness.[87] Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Mani's teaching was intended to "combine",[88] succeed, and surpass the teachings of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Marcionism,[88] Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism, Gnostic movements, Ancient Greek religion, Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions,[89] and mystery cults.[90][91] It reveres Mani as the final prophet after Zoroaster, the Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ.

Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through Aramaic-speaking regions.[92] It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as the Han dynasty and as far west as the Roman Empire.[93] It was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in the competition to replace classical polytheism before the spread of Islam. Under the Roman Dominate, Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire.[94] While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.[95]

Manichaeism has survived longer in the east than it did in the west. Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century in South China,[96] contemporary to the decline of the Church of the East in Ming China, there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially in Fujian,[97][98] where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected. This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history.[99]

Islam

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Main article: Prophets and messengers in Islam
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The Quran identifies a number of men as "Prophets of Islam" (Arabic: نبي nabī; pl. أنبياء anbiyāʾ). Muslims believe such individuals were assigned a special mission by God to guide humanity. Besides Muhammad, this includes prophets such as Abraham (Ibrāhīm), Moses (Mūsā) and Jesus (ʿĪsā).

A depiction of Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, 1307, Ilkhanate period.

Although only twenty-five prophets[100] are mentioned by name in the Quran, a hadith (no. 21257 in Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal)[101] mentions that there were (more or less) 124,000 prophets in total throughout history. Other traditions place the number of prophets at 224,000.[citation needed] The Quran says that God has sent a prophet to every group of people throughout time and that Muhammad is the last of the prophets, sent for the whole of humankind.[102] The message of all the prophets is believed to be the same. In Islam, all prophetic messengers are prophets (such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad) though not all prophets are prophetic messengers. The primary distinction is that a prophet is required to demonstrate God's law through his actions, character, and behavior without necessarily calling people to follow him, while a prophetic messenger is required to pronounce God's law (i.e. revelation) and call his people to submit and follow him. Muhammad is distinguished from the rest of the prophetic messengers and prophets in that God commissioned him to be the prophetic messenger to all of humankind. Many of these prophets are also found in the texts of Judaism (The Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings) and Christianity.[103]

Muslims often refer to Muhammad as "the Prophet", in the form of a noun.[104][105][106][107] Jesus is the result of a virgin birth in Islam as in Christianity, and is regarded as a prophet.[108]

Although it offers many incidents from the lives of many prophets, the Quran focuses with special narrative and rhetorical emphasis on the careers of the first four of these five major prophets.[who?] Of all the figures before Muhammad, the significance of Jesus in Islam is reflected in his being mentioned in the Quran in 93 verses with various titles attached such as "Son of Mary" and other relational terms, mentioned directly and indirectly, over 187 times.[109][110] He is thus the most mentioned person in the Quran by reference; 25 times by the name Isa, third-person 48 times, first-person 35 times, and the rest as titles and attributes.[111] Moses (Musa) and Abraham (Ibrahim) are also referred to frequently in the Quran. As for the fifth, the Quran is frequently addressed directly to Muhammad, and it often discusses situations encountered by him. Direct use of his name in the text, however, is rare. Rarer still is the mention of Muhammad's contemporaries.

Several prominent exponents of the Fatimid Ismaili Imams explained that throughout history there have been six enunciators (natiqs) who brought the exoteric (zahir) revelation to humans, namely: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad. They speak of a seventh enunciator (natiq), the Resurrector (Qa’im), who will unveil the esoteric (batin) meaning of all the previous revelations. He is believed to be the pinnacle and purpose of creation. The enunciators (sing. natiq) who are the Prophets and the Imams in their respective times, are the highest hierarch (hadd). The enunciators (natiqs) signal the beginning of a new age (dawr) in humankind, whereas the Imams unveil and present the esoteric (batin) meaning of the revelation to the people. These individuals are both known as the ‘Lord of the Age’ (sahib al-’asr) or the ‘Lord of the Time’ (sahib al-zaman). Through them, one can know God, and their invitation to humans to recognize God is called the invitation (da’wa).[112]

According to Shia Islam, all Prophets and Imams are infallible and the belief in their abstinence from intentional and unintentional sins is a part of the creed. Thus, it is accordingly believed that they are the examples to be followed and that they act as they preach. This belief includes some ʾAwliyāʾ such as Lady Fatima and Lady Mary.

Ahmadiyya

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Main article: Prophets in Ahmadiyya
Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad (1835–1908), a religious leader from India, and founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam.[113][114]

During his lifetime, Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad said that he was a prophet of God and became the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam,[113][114] which embodied the Mahdī of Islam[113][114] and fulfilled the messianic prophecies regarding the coming of a savior to various other religious traditions, including Christianity and Hinduism.[113]

Followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam believe that Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad was a prophet of God,[113][114] who is said to be a fulfillment of the various Islamic prophecies regarding the second advent of Jesus (ʿĪsā) before the end of time.[113][114]

Ahmadi thought emphasizes the belief that Islam is the final dispensation for humanity as revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring it to its true intent and pristine form, which had been lost through the centuries.[115] Its adherents consider Ahmad to have appeared as the Mahdi—bearing the qualities of Jesus in accordance with their reading of scriptural prophecies—to revitalize Islam and set in motion its moral system that would bring about lasting peace.[116][117][118] They believe that upon divine guidance he purged Islam of foreign accretions in belief and practice by championing what is, in their view, Islam's original precepts as practised by Muhammad and the early Muslim community.[119] Ahmadis thus view themselves as leading the propagation and renaissance of Islam.[115][120]

Druze faith

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In the Druze faith, seven spokesmen or prophets are considered and revered as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind. These prophets include Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad and Muhammad ibn Isma'il. Each of them was sent in a different period of history to preach the message of God.[121][122][123]

The Druze believe that each spokesman or prophet (natiq) has a "foundation" or "guardian" who is responsible for the esoteric, interpretative law, while the spokesman or prophet himself presents the apparent, obligatory law.[124] The first prophet was Adam, whose foundation was Seth, although Adam did not have a mandate to introduce a law. Noah followed with a new law, superseding Adam's teachings, and his foundation was Shem. Then came Abraham, with Ishmael as his foundation, and Moses, whose foundation was Joshua son of Nun after Aaron's death. Jesus followed, with Simon Peter as his foundation, and finally, Muhammad, with Ali ibn Abi Talib as his foundation.[124] The last figure is Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, the founder of the Fatimid Caliphate, whose foundation was al-Qaddah. With Hamza ibn Ali, the prophet of al-Hakim, a new era began, introducing a new law called the "Law of Tawhid" (Unification) or the "Third Path," which superseded all previous laws. Hamza ibn Ali was assisted by four boundaries mentioned in their tradition.[124]

Baháʼí Faith

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Main article: Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)
Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith

The Baháʼí Faith refers to what are commonly called prophets as "Manifestations of God" who are directly linked with the concept of progressive revelation. Baháʼís believe that the will of God is expressed at all times and in many ways, including through a series of divine messengers referred to as "Manifestations of God" or "divine educators".[125] In expressing God's intent, these Manifestations are seen to establish religion in the world. Thus they are seen as an intermediary between God and humanity.[126]

The Manifestations of God are not seen as incarnations of God, and are also not seen as ordinary mortals. Instead, the Baháʼí concept of the Manifestation of God emphasizes simultaneously the humanity of that intermediary and the divinity in the way they show forth the will, knowledge and attributes of God; thus they have both human and divine stations.[126]

In addition to the Manifestations of God, there are also minor prophets. While the Manifestations of God, or major prophets, are compared to the Sun (which produces its own heat and light), minor prophets are compared to the Moon (which receives its light from the sun). Moses, for example, is taught as having been a Manifestation of God and his brother Aaron a minor prophet. Moses spoke on behalf of God, and Aaron spoke on behalf of Moses (Exodus 4:14–17).[127] Other Jewish prophets are considered minor prophets, as they are considered to have come in the shadow of the dispensation of Moses to develop and consolidate the process he set in motion.

Native Americans

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See also: Baháʼí Faith and Native Americans

The Great Peacemaker (sometimes referred to as Deganawida or Dekanawida) co-founded the Haudenosaunee league in pre-Columbian times. In retrospect, his prophecy of the boy seer could appear to refer to the conflict between natives and Europeans (white serpent).

From 1805 until the Battle of Tippecanoe that falsified his predictions in 1811, the "Shawnee prophet" Tenskwatawa led an Indian alliance to stop Europeans from taking more and more land going west. He reported visions he had. He is said to have accurately predicted a solar eclipse. His brother Tecumseh re-established the alliance for Tecumseh's War, that ended with the latter's death in 1813. Tecumseh fought together with British forces that, in the area of the Great Lakes, occupied essentially today's territory of Canada.

Francis the Prophet, influenced by Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, was a leader of the Red Stick faction of the Creek Indians. He traveled to England in 1815 as a representative of the "four Indian nations" in an unsuccessful attempt to get Great Britain to help them resist the expansionism of the white settlers.

20 years later (1832), Wabokieshiek, the "Winnebago Prophet", after whom Prophetstown has been named, (also called "White Cloud") said that British forces would support the Indians in the Black Hawk War against the United States as 20 years earlier (based on "visions"). They did not, and he was no longer considered a "prophet".

In 1869, the Paiute Wodziwob founded the Ghost Dance movement. The dance rituals were an occasion to announce his visions of an earthquake that would swallow the whites. He seems to have died in 1872.

The Northern Paiute Wovoka said he had a vision during the solar eclipse of January 1, 1889, that the Paiute dead would come back and the whites would vanish from America, provided the natives performed Ghost Dances. This idea spread among other Native American peoples. The government were worried about a rebellion and sent troops, which lead to the death of Sitting Bull and to the Wounded Knee massacre in 1890.

Thelema

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Main article: Thelema
Crowley wearing ceremonial garb
Crowley as Prophet of the Aeon of Horus with the Stele of Revealing and The Book of the Law, 1912

Aleister Crowley (1875–1947) was an English occultist, philosopher, ceremonial magician, poet, painter, novelist and mountaineer. He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century. A prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life.

According to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice identifying itself as that of Aiwass, the messenger of Horus, or Hoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it Liber AL vel Legis or The Book of the Law.[128] The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley's religion, Thelema.[129]

In 1924, Crowley traveled to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote To Man (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity.[130] Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which was maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship.[131] He believed that Thelema was the proper religion of the Aeon of Horus,[132] and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new Aeon.[133]

Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe.[134] Crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of one's True Will to be "the Great Work" or the attaining of the "knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel".[135] His favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the Abramelin operation, a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17th-century grimoire.[136] The moral code of "Do What Thou Wilt" is believed by Thelemites to be the religion's ethical law, although the historian of religion Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.[137]

Secular usage

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The designation of "Victorian prophet" has been used in reference to cultural critics of the era, such as Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin.[138]

Commentators who suggest escalating crisis are often called prophets of doom.[139][140]

Scientists analyzing data to forecast future events can also be considered prophets in a secular sense. In 2020, Ann Druyan stated that, "The only prophets that I’m really impressed by are the climate scientists of the past seventy years." She included her late husband, Carl Sagan, among the modern-day prophets, with the disclaimer that "[a] lot of the things that he speculated about haven’t turned out to be true, but all those people are human. They were just using their knowledge and their intelligence to make good guesses."[141]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Prophet

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A prophet is a religious figure believed to act as an between a and humanity, conveying divine messages, revelations, and moral imperatives, with the role often encompassing forth-telling God's will rather than solely foretelling future events. The English term derives from prophētēs, meaning "one who speaks for a god" or interprets divine pronouncements, reflecting an ancient conception of inspired utterance in contexts like oracles or sacred announcements. In Abrahamic traditions—, —prophets are depicted as human messengers chosen by to guide societies toward , , and ethical reform, frequently arising during crises to challenge or . These figures are characterized by claims of direct divine commissioning, bold proclamation without regard for personal consequence, and a focus on over private , as evidenced in Hebrew scriptures where prophets confronted kings and masses alike. Defining prophets include biblical examples such as , who received the , and , whose oracles emphasized covenant fidelity, alongside , regarded as the final prophet sealing . Controversies surrounding prophethood center on discerning authenticity, with biblical criteria like predictive accuracy (Deuteronomy 18:22) and alignment with established serving as tests, though empirical verification of claims remains elusive and often faith-dependent, leading to historical disputes over false prophets who failed to deliver verifiable fulfillments. Beyond Abrahamic faiths, analogous roles appear in and other traditions, but the concept's prominence lies in its causal role shaping religious doctrines and societal norms through asserted divine authority.

Etymology

Linguistic origins and evolution

The term "prophet" in English originates from the prophēta, borrowed from the prophḗtēs (προφήτης), a compound of pró ("before" or "forth") and phḗmi ("to speak" or "declare"), denoting one who speaks out or proclaims, often interpreted as a foreteller of events or divine messages. This Greek usage, evident in classical texts by the 5th century BCE, emphasized public declaration rather than private inspiration, as seen in contexts like oracles at where prophḗtēs referred to interpreters of divine utterances. In of the , the Hebrew nāḇîʾ (נָבִיא), the primary biblical term for prophet appearing over 300 times in the , derives from the Akkadian nabû or nabāʾum, meaning "to call," "summon," or "proclaim," implying one called or authorized by a to announce. This root, part of the Northwest Semitic n-b-ʾ ("to prophesy" or "call forth"), influenced related nabī (نبي), used in the for figures like , reflecting shared Proto-Semitic origins around the BCE. Unlike the Greek focus on forth-telling, nāḇîʾ carried connotations of passive reception, as in Exodus 7:1 where is told will serve as his nāḇîʾ ("spokesman") to . The linguistic convergence occurred through the translation (3rd–2nd century BCE), where Hebrew nāḇîʾ was rendered as Greek prophḗtēs, bridging Semitic and Hellenistic traditions and influencing early Christian texts in the , which uses prophḗtēs over 140 times for both figures and . This adoption persisted into Latin and medieval European vernaculars, evolving the term in Romance and by the 12th century CE to encompass inspired preachers or predictors, while Semitic forms remained distinct in Jewish and Islamic contexts. Over time, the word's semantic shift in Western usage increasingly emphasized prediction amid apocalyptic interpretations, diverging from the original declarative emphasis in both Greek and Hebrew sources.

Core Concepts

Religious definitions and characteristics

In religious traditions, particularly the Abrahamic faiths of , , a prophet is defined as a divinely selected to serve as an , conveying God's messages, revelations, and directives to humanity. This role emphasizes forthtelling—articulating divine will in the present—over mere foretelling of future events, though predictions often accompany calls to ethical and monotheistic adherence. Prophets are not self-appointed but commissioned through direct encounters with the divine, distinguishing them from philosophers or moralists whose derives from reason or consensus rather than claimed mandate. Key characteristics include receipt of via mechanisms such as auditory commands, visions, or inspired speech, as described in primary religious texts; prophets are obligated to relay these unaltered, often at personal peril, confronting rulers or societies with warnings of for covenant violations. typically applies only to the transmission of the message, not personal sinlessness, though Abrahamic scriptures portray prophets as exemplary in conduct and resilience against opposition. Verification of true prophethood historically hinges on alignment with established , fulfillment of testable predictions, and absence of self-serving motives, criteria outlined in texts like Deuteronomy 18:20-22, which mandate death for false claimants leading to . Prophets function as moral and social reformers, advocating , for the vulnerable, and rejection of or ethical decay, roles evidenced in figures like decrying economic exploitation around 760 BCE or condemning corruption circa 700 BCE. While miracles may corroborate their status—as with Elijah's confrontation of Baal's prophets in 1 Kings 18—they are secondary to the message's content and consistency. In broader religious contexts beyond Abrahamic traditions, analogous figures exist, such as oracles in or Mesopotamian cults, but these often rely on interpretive rituals rather than personal divine election, highlighting the Abrahamic emphasis on unmediated, verbal . Scholarly analyses note that prophetic authority derives from perceived divine endorsement, not institutional validation, though modern interpretations in academia sometimes downplay supernatural elements in favor of socio-political functions, a perspective critiqued for prioritizing naturalistic explanations over textual claims. Prophets differ from primarily in function and . typically serve as institutional mediators who represent the people to the divine through rituals, sacrifices, and maintenance of sacred traditions, often holding hereditary or appointed roles within established religious hierarchies. In contrast, prophets act as direct spokespersons for the divine to the people, delivering unsolicited messages that emphasize moral reform, judgment, or future events, deriving from personal divine commissioning rather than institutional sanction. This distinction is evident in ancient Near Eastern contexts, where prophets operated outside formal priestly structures, often confronting corrupt religious establishments. Unlike seers or diviners, who rely on interpretive methods such as visions, omens, or auguries requiring translation from symbolic forms into human language, prophets receive and convey messages already articulated in comprehensible speech, bypassing scholarly training or technical divination. In biblical traditions, the terms "seer" and "prophet" overlap, with "seer" (Hebrew ro'eh) denoting an earlier designation for those who perceive divine insights visually (1 Samuel 9:9), but prophets extend beyond sight to forthtelling ethical imperatives and communal directives, not merely perceiving hidden truths. Oracles, often tied to specific shrines or consultative practices like those at Delphi, respond to inquiries with cryptic pronouncements, whereas prophets initiate communication proactively, independent of human prompting. Prophets also diverge from shamans and mystics in their cosmological and performative roles. Shamans function as part-time intermediaries in animistic or polytheistic systems, employing ecstatic trances, spirit journeys, or rituals to negotiate between and spirit realms, frequently incorporating magical elements. Prophets, however, operate within frameworks emphasizing singular divine sovereignty, focusing on verbal and societal without reliance on or personal therapeutic . pursue introspective union with the divine, yielding ineffable personal experiences that may not translate into public exhortation, while prophets prioritize interpretable, actionable revelations directed at communities for ethical or eschatological guidance. Visionaries share the prophetic emphasis on foresight but often lack the mandated role of conveying authoritative, legislative messages binding on followers. These separations underscore the prophet's unique emphasis on causal divine intervention in history, unmediated by ritualistic or ecstatic intermediaries.

Ancient Origins

Mesopotamian prophetic traditions

Mesopotamian prophetic traditions encompassed individuals who served as conduits for divine messages, primarily to kings and elites, distinct from sign-based practices. These traditions are attested from the early BCE, with the richest corpus from the Old Babylonian archives at Mari (modern Tell Hariri, Syria), dating to the reign of (ca. 1776–1757 BCE). Over 50 prophetic reports in letters describe intermediaries relaying oral messages from deities such as Annunitum, Itar, and Dagan, often concerning royal legitimacy, military campaigns, and warnings of betrayal. Prophets at Mari included muhhû (ecstatics, frequently women experiencing trance-like states induced by rituals or music) and āpilum (male "answerers" who responded to divine queries). Messages were typically delivered in temple settings, authenticated by physical tokens like or garment fringes, and corroborated through extispicy (entrail examination) to verify divine origin. For instance, the prophetess Shibtu entered a to convey Annunitum's assurance of victory to against enemies, emphasizing loyalty to the gods. Such oracles supported monarchical authority but could also critique it, as in admonitions against neglecting cultic duties. In the Neo-Assyrian period (7th century BCE), prophetic activity persisted, with oracles inscribed on clay tablets from addressed to kings (r. 681–669 BCE) and Assurbanipal (r. 668–627 BCE). Deities like Itar of Arbela promised protection and victory, such as in messages affirming Esarhaddon's throne against rivals. These texts, numbering around 20, exhibit formalized language and visionary elements, blending encouragement with demands for . Unlike Mari's ad hoc letters, Assyrian prophecies were archived as state records, reflecting institutionalized royal-divine communication. Literary prophetic compositions, such as the Akkadian Prophecies (including the Dynastic Prophecy and Uruk Prophecy, spanning ca. 1500–500 BCE), narrate sequences of unnamed kings' reigns with omens of woe or prosperity, often retrospectively composed (vaticinia ex eventu) to legitimize rulers or predict utopian futures. These differ from direct oracles by their narrative form and astrological ties, yet share motifs of divine judgment and restoration. Empirical analysis of cuneiform tablets reveals these traditions' integration with kingship ideology, where prophecy reinforced causal links between piety, rule, and cosmic order, without evidence of independent ethical critique seen in later Abrahamic models.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroaster, also known as Zarathustra, is regarded as the founding prophet of , a monotheistic faith originating in ancient . Scholarly estimates place his life between approximately 1500 and 1000 BCE, based on linguistic analysis of the Gathas—hymns attributed to him—and comparisons with Vedic texts, though traditional accounts sometimes date him later, around the 6th century BCE. Zoroaster's revelations emphasized the supremacy of , the wise lord and creator god, and introduced a cosmic dualism between good (, truth/order) and evil (druj, falsehood/chaos), urging followers to align with good through righteous thoughts, words, and deeds. At around age 30, Zoroaster experienced a transformative vision by a river, where he encountered Vohu Manah (good mind) and received direct instruction from Ahura Mazda to propagate divine wisdom. This prophetic call led him to reject polytheistic rituals prevalent among Indo-Iranian tribes, reforming practices to focus on ethical monotheism, fire as a symbol of purity, and free will in the struggle against Angra Mainyu, the destructive spirit. The Gathas, comprising 17 hymns in the Avesta scripture, form the core of Zoroastrian doctrine and are considered Zoroaster's own compositions, preserving his poetic prophecies and dialogues with the divine. Unlike Abrahamic traditions with multiple prophets, Zoroastrianism centers prophetic authority solely on , with no recorded successors in the revelatory role; later texts anticipate saoshyants (future saviors) but frame them as eschatological figures rather than prophets. His conversion of King and the royal court marked the religion's establishment, influencing Achaemenid Persia by the BCE, where Zoroastrian elements appear in inscriptions and practices. Primary evidence derives from the , orally transmitted until committed to writing around the 4th-6th centuries CE, underscoring Zoroaster's enduring status as the singular mediator of divine truth in the faith.

Other pre-Abrahamic examples

In , prophetic roles were embodied by sages and priests who interpreted omens and foretold societal upheavals, as seen in the a text from the Middle Kingdom (c. 1991–1802 BCE) where the sage Neferti warns of chaos and predicts a savior king's restoration of order. These figures operated within a polytheistic framework, advising pharaohs on divine will through dreams and ritual consultations rather than personal divine election. Temple priests, titled hem-netjer (prophet or servant of the god), functioned as intermediaries, delivering oracles from deities like , though their authority derived from institutional hierarchy rather than charismatic revelation. Ancient Greek traditions featured seers (manteis) who divined future events and gods' intentions via observable signs, such as bird flights, entrails, or celestial phenomena, playing pivotal roles in warfare and state decisions from the Mycenaean period (c. 1600–1100 BCE) onward. Exemplars include , the blind Theban seer who advised and Creon based on underworld visions and ritual expertise, and , who interpreted omens for the expedition in Homer's (composed c. BCE but drawing on older oral traditions). Unlike monotheistic prophets emphasizing moral rebuke, Greek seers emphasized technical mantic skills, often hereditary or trained, with oracles like serving as institutionalized prophetic sites under Apollo's patronage. In Vedic , rishis (seers) of the (composed c. 1500–1200 BCE, with roots in earlier Indo-Aryan oral traditions predating Abraham c. 2000 BCE) claimed to "hear" or "see" eternal truths and hymns directly from deities, positioning them as prophetic conduits for cosmic order (ṛta). Figures like and Vashistha invoked divine inspirations to compose verses addressing rituals, kingship, and natural forces, blending visionary insight with priestly functions in a non-hierarchical, hymn-based system. This tradition prioritized intuitive perception over predictive foretelling, influencing later Indic spiritual roles but lacking the eschatological or reformist urgency of Abrahamic .

Prophecy in Judaism

Biblical prophets and functions

In the Hebrew Bible, prophets, known as navi (נָבִיא), served as divinely appointed spokespersons who conveyed God's messages to Israel and surrounding nations. The term derives from a root meaning "to call" or "proclaim," emphasizing their role in announcing divine will rather than merely foretelling events. These figures emerged prominently from the period of the united monarchy around 1000 BCE through the post-exilic era by 400 BCE, acting as intermediaries during times of national crisis, idolatry, and covenant breach. The primary function of biblical prophets was to deliver God's oracles, often rebuking sin, urging repentance, and warning of judgment for covenant infidelity. For instance, prophets like (active circa 740–700 BCE) and (circa 626–586 BCE) confronted kings and priests, exposing and social injustices such as exploitation of the poor. They interpreted historical events—like the Assyrian invasions (e.g., 722 BCE fall of ) or Babylonian exile (586 BCE)—as divine punishment, while also promising restoration for the faithful remnant. Prophets performed diverse roles beyond verbal proclamation, including symbolic actions and miracles to authenticate their authority. (9th century BCE) demonstrated God's power over through fire from heaven on (1 Kings 18), confronting royal idolatry under . (circa 593–571 BCE) enacted visions like lying on his side for 390 days to symbolize Israel's (Ezekiel 4). They also provided ethical and theological guidance, reinforcing the Torah's demands for , , and , often filling voids left by corrupt priesthoods. Predictive prophecy formed a key aspect, with forthtellings of future events serving to validate divine sovereignty. like Daniel interpreted dreams and foresaw empires' rises and falls (, 7), while minor prophets such as (circa 760 BCE) predicted Israel's doom for ethical lapses. These oracles, spanning judgment to messianic hope (e.g., 7:14, 53), underscored God's control over history, though fulfillment often hinged on Israel's response. Prophets like used personal metaphors, such as his marriage to , to illustrate God's enduring love amid infidelity ( 1–3). The corpus divides into writing prophets—whose books form the Latter Prophets in the Tanakh—and non-writing figures like or Nathan, who anointed kings and advised rulers (e.g., Nathan confronting over , 2 Samuel 12). Overall, their functions prioritized covenant enforcement, with over 40 named prophets emphasizing fidelity to amid polytheistic pressures from Canaanite and Mesopotamian influences circa 1200–500 BCE.

Prophecy in Christianity

New Testament and early church prophets

In the , prophets are depicted as individuals receiving divine revelation through the to declare God's will, often emphasizing edification, exhortation, and consolation within the community of believers rather than solely foretelling future events. Key figures include , recognized as a prophet fulfilling Isaiah's description of a voice crying in the wilderness and preparing the way for the , active around 28-30 AD. Anna, a widow from the described explicitly as a prophetess, lived in the temple, fasted, prayed continuously, and proclaimed as the redemption of upon seeing him as an infant circa 6-4 BC. The Book of Acts records the fulfillment of Joel's prophecy at around 30 AD, where Peter declares that the outpouring of the Spirit enables all believers—sons, daughters, young, and old—to prophesy, marking a democratization of prophetic activity beyond select individuals. Named prophets include Agabus, who foretold a great famine affecting the around 46 AD, prompting relief efforts, and later symbolized Paul's impending bonds in circa 57 AD. the evangelist's four unmarried daughters also prophesied, noted during Paul's visit to Caesarea around 57 AD. Additionally, and functioned as prophets, exhorting and strengthening churches in and following the Council circa 49 AD. Pauline writings outline as one of the spiritual gifts distributed by the Spirit for church edification, ranking it highly and instructing believers to pursue it eagerly while subjecting prophecies to testing by others to maintain order. In 1 Corinthians, written circa 55 AD, Paul prioritizes over uninterpreted tongues because it builds up the assembly intelligibly. Ephesians, composed around 60-62 AD, positions prophets among foundational gifts from Christ—alongside apostles, evangelists, pastors, and teachers—to equip saints for ministry and foster unity until maturity. In the early church following the apostolic era, prophetic ministry persisted, as evidenced by the , a manual dated to the late first or early second century AD, which dedicates chapters to testing itinerant prophets who speak in the Spirit, distinguishing true ones by ethical conduct and doctrinal alignment from false claimants seeking personal gain. This text prescribes hospitality for prophets staying no more than two or three days and warns against judging those speaking genuinely in the Spirit, reflecting active discernment practices in nascent Christian communities. Such guidelines underscore prophecy's role in worship and guidance amid emerging institutional structures.

Prophecy in Islam

Quranic framework and key figures

In Islamic , the Quranic framework of prophethood delineates a divine mechanism through which appoints selected individuals, distinguished by their piety and intellectual capacity, to receive (wahy) via the Jibril and to transmit guidance to humanity. These prophets function primarily to affirm (), enjoin righteous deeds, prohibit immorality, and alert communities to eschatological consequences, thereby establishing a covenantal relationship between Creator and creation. The Quran posits that such emissaries were sent universally across nations to obviate claims of neglect on , as articulated in Surah Yunus 10:47: "And for every nation is a messenger." A doctrinal distinction exists between nabi (prophet), who receives to reinforce prior revelations, and rasul (), who introduces a novel legislative code (shari'ah) or scripture, founding a new normative order; all rusul qualify as anbiya (prophets), but the converse does not hold. This hierarchy manifests in figures like as a nabi auxiliary to Musa, whereas Musa, bearer of the , exemplifies a rasul. embodies the culminating rasul and nabi, with prophethood's finality enshrined in Surah Al-Ahzab 33:40: "... [is] the ." to him commenced circa 610 CE in and concluded in 632 CE near , culminating in the Quran's compilation. The Quran identifies 25 prophets by name, amid assertions in prophetic traditions of approximately 124,000 total prophets dispatched historically, underscoring a continuity of divine outreach predating and encompassing Abrahamic lineages. Key figures encompass Adam, inaugural prophet and progenitor; Nuh (Noah), preserver of believers via the ark amid deluge; Ibrahim (Abraham), exemplar of submission through fiery trial and progeny covenant; Musa (Moses), liberator from Pharaoh with evidentiary miracles like staff-to-serpent transmutation; Isa (Jesus), virginally born herald of Gospel, ascribed miracles including clay bird animation; and Muhammad, unlettered recipient of the Quran's 114 surahs over 23 years. Preeminent among them are the five of firm resolve (ulul 'azm)—Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa, Isa, Muhammad—lauded for resilience against systemic rejection and alteration of prior messages.
Prophet (English equivalent)Quranic MentionsNotable Role
Multiple (e.g., Al-Baqarah 2:30-39)First human, vicegerent, expelled from paradise for disobedience
Nuh ()43Ark-builder, against
Ibrahim (Abraham)69Father of , tested with son Ismail's near-sacrifice
Musa (Moses)136Lawgiver, exodus leader, recipient of
Isa (Jesus)25, miracle-worker, precursor to
4 (plus variants)Final prophet, Quran's conduit
Other named prophets include Hud (to 'Ad), Saleh (to Thamud), Yusuf (Joseph, interpreter of dreams), Dawud (David, psalmist-king), and Yunus (Jonah, repentant whale survivor), each embodying localized divine intervention against deviance.

Prophecy in Other Traditions

Manichaeism, Druze, and Baháʼí Faith

In Manichaeism, founded by the prophet Mani around 240 CE in the Sasanian Empire, prophecy culminated in Mani himself as the final revealer of divine gnosis, positioned as the successor to earlier messengers including Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus. Mani, born circa 216 CE and executed in 276 CE, claimed his teachings synthesized and perfected the corrupted doctrines of these predecessors, whom Manichaeans revered as "Apostles of Light" but viewed as incomplete without his final "seal." This syncretic framework emphasized dualistic cosmology—light versus darkness—revealed through prophetic missions, with Mani's role as the Paraclete promised by Jesus, delivering uncorrupted truth via scriptures like the Arzhang and Shabuhragan. The Druze faith, emerging in the 11th century CE from Ismaili Shiism under Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, incorporates a lineage of prophets from Abrahamic traditions, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Jethro (Shu'ayb), whom they regard as the inaugural prophet conveying divine unity (tawhid). Druze doctrine, esoteric and closed to converts since 1043 CE, posits these prophets as vehicles for God's periodic manifestations, with al-Hakim as the ultimate divine epiphany transcending prior revelations, though prophets like John the Baptist and Khidr are also acknowledged for upholding monotheism against distortion. Central texts, the Epistles of Wisdom, frame prophecy as iterative guidance toward tawhid, rejecting literalism in favor of allegorical interpretation, while maintaining ethical imperatives derived from these figures without establishing new prophetic succession post-al-Hakim. In the Baháʼí Faith, established by Bahá'u'lláh in 1863 CE following the Báb's declaration in 1844 CE, prophecy operates through "progressive revelation," wherein God unveils truth cyclically via Manifestations—prophets such as Abraham, Krishna, , , , , , the , and Bahá'u'lláh—who adapt divine principles to humanity's evolving capacity. This doctrine posits each Manifestation as a full reflection of God's attributes, renewing religion without abrogating essentials like and moral law, with Bahá'u'lláh as the latest in this chain, fulfilling prophecies and inaugurating an era of global unity amid scientific and social advancement. Bahá'í writings, including (1862 CE), emphasize independent investigation of truth and harmony among revelations, rejecting finality claims by prior prophets like Muhammad to allow ongoing divine education.

Indigenous and Native American contexts

In Native American traditions, prophetic figures often emerged as visionaries who claimed direct revelations from spiritual beings, urging moral renewal, cultural resistance, and communal revitalization in response to European and societal disruption. These prophets typically experienced visions during periods of personal or collective crisis, interpreting them as divine mandates to restore traditional practices while sometimes incorporating selective elements from . Unlike Abrahamic prophets focused on monotheistic law-giving, Native American prophets emphasized harmony with nature, rejection of vices like alcohol, and prophecies of tribal resurgence or apocalyptic renewal. One early example is Neolin, a Delaware (Lenape) prophet active around 1761-1763, whose visions instructed Native peoples to abandon European goods, alcohol, and intermarriage, advocating a return to pre-contact hunting and spiritual purity to regain the favor of the . His teachings influenced Pontiac's , promoting pan-tribal unity against settler expansion. Scholars note Neolin's emphasis on visionary quests as a core indigenous mechanism for , distinct from written scriptures. Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet (c. 1775-1836), underwent a transformative vision in 1805 following a from an accident, renouncing alcohol and preaching moral reforms including , , and avoidance of white trade goods. He established Prophetstown in 1808 as a spiritual center, prophesying that adherence to his revelations would lead to the expulsion of Euro-Americans and the revival of buffalo herds. His movement, intertwined with his brother Tecumseh's political confederacy, peaked before the 1811 , after which his influence waned; historical analyses attribute its rise to syncretic elements blending Shawnee cosmology with Christian , though rooted in indigenous visionary traditions. Handsome Lake (Sganyodaiyo, 1735-1815), a Seneca leader and half-brother to , received visions starting in 1799 amid alcoholism and tribal decline, forming the Gaiwiio or "Good Word" code. This oral doctrine, recorded by followers like Arthur C. Parker in 1913, condemned , drunkenness, and quarrels while promoting , family stability, and limited engagement with white society; it prophesied punishment for vices but ultimate redemption through . Adopted widely among the Confederacy, the code facilitated cultural survival post-Revolutionary War land losses, with ongoing practice in Longhouse Religion communities as of the . In the late , (c. 1858-1932), a Paiute mystic also known as Jack Wilson, experienced a vision in 1889, founding the movement that spread across the . He prophesied that ritual dances would hasten the return of ancestors, abundant game, and the earth's renewal, with whites vanishing peacefully if Natives lived honestly and avoided conflict. The movement, emphasizing non-violence and cross-cultural elements from his exposure to rancher , inspired hope amid reservation confinement but contributed to tensions culminating in the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre, where U.S. troops killed over 250 Lakota practitioners. Academic studies highlight its role in indigenous , verifying participation by at least 20 tribes before suppression. These prophetic traditions reflect adaptive responses to empirical pressures like , dispossession, and cultural , with visions serving as causal mechanisms for social cohesion rather than infallible predictions; verified outcomes include temporary gains and intertribal alliances, though many foretold resurgences did not materialize amid overwhelming demographics. Contemporary scholarship cautions against romanticizing these figures, noting internal tribal and the prophets' reliance on oral validation over textual .

Modern and Esoteric Developments

Continuationist movements in Christianity

Continuationism posits that the charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit, including prophecy, as described in 1 Corinthians 12–14 and other New Testament passages, remain operative in the contemporary church rather than having ceased after the apostolic era. This view contrasts with cessationism, which holds that such gifts were foundational for establishing the canon and early church authority, diminishing post-apostolically. Continuationists argue for the perpetual availability of gifts based on the abiding nature of the Spirit's ministry until Christ's return, emphasizing prophecy as Spirit-enabled utterance for edification, exhortation, and encouragement, often non-predictive and subject to communal discernment. The modern resurgence of continuationism crystallized in the Pentecostal movement, originating in the United States around 1901 when Charles Fox Parham's students at Bethel Bible School in , experienced as evidence of Spirit baptism. This culminated in the 1906 in , led by , which drew thousands and propelled global missionary outreach, affirming ongoing prophecy alongside tongues and healing as normative for believers. By emphasizing direct prophetic revelations and interpretations, grew rapidly, establishing denominations like the in 1914, and now claims over 279 million adherents worldwide who practice these gifts. In the 1960s, the Charismatic Renewal extended continuationist practices into and Catholic circles, beginning on April 3, 1960, when Episcopal priest Dennis Bennett announced his experience of Spirit baptism with tongues at St. Mark's in , . This movement, avoiding strict denominational separation, integrated , , and glossolalia into existing liturgies, influencing figures like David du Plessis and spreading to Catholic after the 1967 weekend retreat. By the 1970s, it had permeated Anglican, Lutheran, and Methodist groups, fostering prophetic ministries focused on personal guidance and church renewal. The Third Wave, emerging in the late 1970s and formalized in the 1980s, further diversified continuationism through leaders like , founder of the movement in 1977, who emphasized "power " integrating signs like and into non-charismatic evangelical contexts without mandating tongues as initial evidence. Coined by in 1983, this wave prioritized equipping ordinary believers for supernatural ministry, as seen in Wimber's courses at starting in 1979. Collectively, Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Third Wave adherents number approximately 644 million globally as of recent estimates, representing about 26% of and driving church growth particularly in the Global South. These movements maintain that prophetic gifts serve to authenticate and build the , though practices vary in emphasis on testing prophecies against Scripture.

Thelema and new religious movements

Thelema, an esoteric religious and philosophical system founded by Aleister Crowley in the early 20th century, centers on a prophetic revelation claimed by its originator. In April 1904, while in Cairo, Egypt, Crowley reported receiving The Book of the Law (Liber AL vel Legis) over three days (April 8–10) through dictation from a praeterhuman intelligence named Aiwass, described as a messenger of the deity Horus. This text proclaims the inception of the Aeon of Horus, supplanting prior spiritual epochs, with Crowley positioned as its prophet, termed "the Beast" and tasked with disseminating its doctrines of individual will and self-realization. The core axiom, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," underscores discovery of one's "True Will" as alignment with cosmic purpose, framed within rituals invoking Egyptian deities and Hermetic principles. Crowley's self-identification as prophet extended through his leadership of organizations like the (OTO), which he reoriented toward Thelemic practices after 1912, promoting sexual magick and initiatory rites as means to personal rather than hierarchical . Adherents view the Cairo working as a singular, epochal event, not replicable in the same prophetic mode, though individual communion with the Holy Guardian Angel—via practices like the Abramelin ritual Crowley undertook in 1906—mirrors prophetic insight on a personal scale. Thelema's prophetic tradition thus emphasizes Crowley's foundational role while rejecting ongoing messianic figures, distinguishing it from Abrahamic models of continuous . Claims of the revelation's origin remain unverifiable, reliant on Crowley's accounts and subsequent esoteric validations, with critics attributing it to psychological or hallucinatory states amid his documented substance use and exploratory travels. As a prototypical (NRM), exemplifies how modern esoteric systems integrate prophetic founder narratives with individualistic , influencing subsequent groups without establishing successor prophets. Emerging post-1900 amid Western revival, it parallels NRMs like those derived from Crowley's works, where leaders claim revelatory but prioritize practitioner over doctrinal . In broader NRM contexts, prophetic claims often serve to legitimize novel cosmologies, as seen in 's synthesis of , , and , though empirical scrutiny reveals such movements' reliance on charismatic testimony over falsifiable predictions. The system's propagation via Crowley's publications and OTO lodges, peaking in the , underscores its role in shaping 20th-century esotericism, with ongoing communities affirming the 1904 text's enduring, if contested, prophetic status.

Secular and Critical Views

Non-religious usages

In non-religious contexts, the term "prophet" refers to an individual who foretells future events or developments through insight, analysis, or , without reference to . This usage emphasizes prescience in domains such as , , , or culture, where predictions are grounded in observable trends rather than supernatural . For example, economists forecasting recessions or market shifts are often described as prophets if their projections prove accurate, as in the case of those who anticipated the based on data and leverage ratios exceeding 30:1 in subprime markets. A common figurative application is the "prophet of doom," denoting a pessimist who warns of impending catastrophe, such as , , or . The phrase, which gained prominence in the mid-20th century, draws from biblical imagery but applies secularly to critics like Thomas Malthus, whose essay predicted famine due to outpacing food supply, though subsequent agricultural innovations like the Haber-Bosch process invalidated the timeline. Modern instances include environmental analysts projecting climate tipping points, such as the 2021 IPCC report estimating 1.5°C warming by 2030-2052 under current emissions trajectories, leading to labels of prophets amid debates over model uncertainties like cloud feedback effects. The term also describes advocates of innovative ideas or social reforms viewed as visionary, akin to an "inspired teacher" of progress. Historical figures like have been retrospectively termed prophets of emancipation for articulating principles of liberty that influenced policy, such as the of January 1, 1863, amid the Civil War's 620,000 deaths. In contemporary discourse, secular prophets include public intellectuals warning of technological risks, like those predicting failures with failure probabilities estimated at 10-50% by surveys of researchers in 2023. Such usages, while rhetorical, highlight causal foresight but often invite scrutiny for , where fulfilled predictions are amplified over disconfirmed ones.

Sociological and psychological analyses

Sociologists have analyzed prophets through the lens of , a concept developed by in his 1922 work . Weber defined as a form of domination resting on the personal devotion to a leader perceived as possessing extraordinary, quasi-divine qualities, often manifesting in revolutionary challenges to established orders. Prophets, in this view, embody such authority by claiming divine mandates that disrupt traditional or bureaucratic structures, fostering follower loyalty through demonstrated "proofs" like miracles or fulfilled predictions, though this authority proves unstable and tends toward routinization into legal-rational systems over time. Empirical observations of historical prophetic movements, such as those in ancient or , align with Weber's model, where prophets galvanized social cohesion amid crises but often faced rejection or institutional co-optation. From a broader sociological standpoint, prophets serve functions in maintaining or precipitating change, as seen in analyses of millenarian movements where prophetic figures articulate anxieties and promise eschatological resolutions. For instance, in pre-modern societies, prophets reinforced group identity by interpreting events through causation, countering as described in Durkheimian terms, though without empirical quantification of such effects across cultures. Studies of modern self-proclaimed prophets in new religious movements indicate they exploit social networks for diffusion, with success correlating to the leader's rhetorical skill and followers' predispositions toward , rather than verifiable validation. Psychological analyses of prophetic claims often invoke frameworks from the , positing that reported visions or auditions arise from of consciousness, such as those induced by , isolation, or stress, akin to phenomena studied in William James's 1902 . Retrospective examinations of biblical prophets like reveal symptoms resembling major depressive episodes or auditory hallucinations—e.g., Elijah's flight into despair after (1 Kings 19)—yet these coexisted with high functionality and societal impact, suggesting no necessary disqualification from adaptive cognition. Similarly, neuropsychiatric reviews of figures like or Paul propose or schizophrenia-like traits to explain ecstatic experiences, based on behavioral descriptions, but emphasize that such diagnoses remain speculative without clinical data and fail to account for the organized doctrinal outputs. Cognitive science of religion provides a naturalistic explanation, attributing prophetic assertions to hyperactive agency detection mechanisms evolved for survival, where ambiguous stimuli are over-interpreted as intentional divine communications. This framework, supported by experimental studies showing proneness to false positives in among religious individuals, posits prophets as outliers in or theory-of-mind , channeling innate intuitions into cultural narratives without requiring . Empirical fMRI research on religious experiences demonstrates activation in reward and self-referential areas during perceived divine encounters, mirroring prophetic reports, though these findings derive from contemporary meditators rather than historical claimants and do not distinguish veridical from illusory perceptions. Critiques note that such reductions overlook the adaptive social utility of prophethood in evolutionary terms, where leaders consolidate power via shared beliefs, but lack direct causal evidence linking cognition to prophetic emergence across societies.

Evaluation of Claims

Scriptural and historical criteria

In Abrahamic traditions, scriptural criteria for discerning true prophets emphasize predictive accuracy and doctrinal fidelity. Deuteronomy 18:21-22 stipulates that a prophet speaking in the name of must have their predictions fulfilled; failure to do so indicates the prophecy is not from , warranting rejection of the claimant. This test prioritizes empirical outcomes over subjective experiences, as unfulfilled words expose presumptuous claims. Complementing this, Deuteronomy 13:1-5 requires consistency with established revelation, rejecting prophets—even those with accompanying signs—who advocate or deviation from monotheistic worship. Similar principles appear in later texts, such as 28:9, which reaffirms fulfillment as the hallmark of authenticity. These scriptural benchmarks extend to evaluating continuity in prophetic lineages. In Isaiah 8:20, alignment with prior "law and testimony" serves as a doctrinal litmus test, implying that novel revelations contradicting foundational texts disqualify claimants. For instance, prophets must exalt Yahweh's without promoting rival deities or , as deviations historically correlated with national downfall in Israelite records. Such criteria, rooted in , demand prophets foster covenant obedience rather than personal agendas. Historically, verification of prophetic claims relies on independent corroboration of fulfillments against extrabiblical , ensuring predictions precede by sufficient temporal distance to preclude fabrication or coincidence. Prophecies must be precise—specifying identifiable details like names, locations, or sequences—rather than vague or retrofittable, with fulfillment documented in contemporary sources such as annals or . For example, the criterion excludes self-fulfilling actions where claimants engineer outcomes, requiring passive realization through uncontrollable historical forces. Multiple, interlocking predictions amplify evidential weight, as probabilistic analyses of independent fulfillments challenge naturalistic explanations. Scholarly assessments further scrutinize dating and transmission fidelity to confirm prophecies antedate alleged fulfillments, dismissing post-event compositions often advanced in skeptical critiques despite countervailing paleographic . Apologetics-oriented sources, while potentially theologically inclined, align with historiographical standards by cross-referencing Assyrian, Babylonian, or Persian inscriptions for validation, whereas uncritical reliance on late or biased reconstructions undermines claims. This empirical approach privileges causal chains observable in records over anecdotal miracles, which lack comparable verifiability.

Verified versus unverified prophecies

A prophecy is deemed verified if it satisfies rigorous empirical criteria: the prediction must be documented unequivocally prior to the event, contain specific, falsifiable details unlikely to occur by chance, and demonstrate fulfillment corroborated by independent, non-partisan historical or archaeological evidence. Such instances are exceedingly rare across prophetic traditions, as most claims rely on retrospective interpretation, textual dating ambiguities, or apologetic frameworks rather than neutral verification. For example, apologists cite 44:28–45:1, which names "" as an anointed conqueror of nations including , fulfilled by the Great's 539 BCE capture of the city, evidenced by the Cyrus Cylinder's inscription detailing his policy of repatriating exiles. Yet critical questions the prophecy's pre-exilic dating, attributing –55 to a later author post-dating 's rise, thus undermining claims of supernatural foresight. Unverified prophecies encompass the majority of recorded predictions, categorized by failure to fulfill, vagueness precluding empirical test, or ongoing ambiguity without resolution. Failed prophecies explicitly contradict their claims, as in Deuteronomy 18:22's biblical test deeming unfulfilled words false. Examples include 26's forecast of Tyre's permanent destruction by Nebuchadnezzar, rendering it a bare rock never rebuilt; while besieged in 573–571 BCE, Tyre survived, relocated to an site, and prospered under Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman rule, contradicting the prophecy's totality. In modern contexts, Harold Camping's 2011 prediction of global and judgment, broadcast via to millions, collapsed without event, exemplifying doomsday prophecies recurrent in millennialist sects. ' repeated eschatological dates, such as 1914 and 1975, similarly lapsed, prompting doctrinal shifts like "invisible" fulfillments to retain adherents despite empirical disconfirmation. Vague or self-fulfilling prophecies resist verification due to interpretive elasticity. Nostradamus's quatrains, such as Century 1, Quatrain 35 on a "young lion" overcoming an "old," have been retrofitted to events like Henry II's 1559 jousting death, but lack pre-event specificity and allow multiple historical mappings. Sociological analyses note that unverified prophecies persist through cognitive dissonance reduction, where believers reframe failures (e.g., as conditional or symbolic) rather than abandon faith, as observed in Leon Festinger's 1950s study of a UFO cult's shattered doomsday expectation. Empirical rarity of verified cases suggests prophetic claims more often reflect contemporary hopes, political agendas, or confirmation bias than prescient insight, with institutional sources like religious texts prone to hagiographic editing over time.

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