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Adrenarche is an early stage in sexual maturation that happens in some higher primates (including humans), typically peaks at around 20 years of age,[1][2] and is involved in the development of pubic hair, body odor, skin oiliness, axillary hair, sexual attraction/sexual desire/increased libido and mild acne. During adrenarche the adrenal glands secrete increased levels of weak adrenal androgens, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (A4), but without increased cortisol levels. Adrenarche is the result of the development of a new zone of the adrenal cortex, the zona reticularis.[3] Adrenarche is a process related to puberty, but distinct from hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis (HPG axis) maturation and function.

Occurrence

[edit]
Levels of DHEA-S, a major adrenal androgen, throughout life in humans[1]

Adrenarche occurs starting at the age of 6 years.[4][5] After the first year of life, the adrenal glands secrete very low levels of adrenal androgens.[1] Adrenarche begins on average between age 5 to 8 in girls and between 7 and 11 in boys, and precedes puberty by about 2 years.[1][4][5] Unlike the physical changes that occur during puberty, adrenarche is primarily an emotional and psychological stage of development.[6] It continues throughout puberty, with adrenal androgen levels progressively increasing until reaching maximal levels in young adulthood, around the age of 20 years.[1][5] Circulating DHEA-S levels specifically peak in humans at about age 19 or 20 years in females and around age 20 to 24 years in males.[2] Levels of corticosteroids like cortisol do not change with adrenarche.[1] Biological messengers[which?] during the onset of adrenarche are thought to signal in preparation for puberty.

Role in puberty

[edit]

An initiator of adrenarche has not yet been identified. Researchers have unsuccessfully tried to identify a new pituitary peptide, to be called "adrenal androgen stimulating hormone". Others have proposed that adrenarchal maturation is a gradual process intrinsic to the adrenal glands that has no distinct trigger. A third avenue of research is pursuing a possible relationship with either fetal or childhood body mass and related signals such as insulin and leptin. Many children born small for gestational age (SGA) because of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) have an earlier onset of adrenarche, which raises the possibility that timing of adrenarche may be affected by physiological programming in infancy. Adrenarche also occurs prematurely in many children who are overweight, suggesting a possible relationship with body mass or adiposity signals.

The principal physical consequences of adrenarche are androgen effects, especially pubic hair (in which Tanner stage 2 becomes Tanner stage 3) and the change of sweat composition that produces adult body odor. Increased oiliness of the skin and hair and mild acne may occur. Pubic hair caused by adrenarche is usually transient and will disappear right before the onset of puberty. In most boys, these changes are indistinguishable from early testicular testosterone effects occurring at the beginning of gonadal puberty. In girls, the adrenal androgens of adrenarche produce most of the early androgenic changes of puberty: pubic hair, body odor, skin oiliness, and acne. In most girls the early androgen effects coincide with, or are a few months following, the earliest estrogenic effects of gonadal puberty (breast development and growth acceleration). As female puberty progresses, the ovaries and peripheral tissues become more important sources of androgens.

Parents and many physicians often infer (incorrectly) the onset of puberty from the first appearance of pubic hair (termed pubarche).[citation needed] However, the independence of adrenarche and gonadal puberty is apparent in children with atypical or abnormal development, when one process may occur without the other. For instance, adrenarche does not occur in many girls with Addison's disease, who will continue to have minimal pubic hair as puberty progresses. Conversely, girls with Turner syndrome will have normal adrenarche and normal pubic hair development, but true gonadal puberty never occurs because their ovaries are abnormal.

Premature adrenarche

[edit]

Premature adrenarche is the most common cause of the early appearance of pubic hair ("premature pubarche") in childhood. In a large proportion of children it seems to be a variation of normal development requiring no treatment. However, there are three clinical issues related to premature adrenarche.

First, when pubic hair appears at an unusually early age in a child, premature adrenarche should be distinguished from true central precocious puberty, from congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and from androgen-producing tumors of the adrenals or gonads. Pediatric endocrinologists do this by demonstrating pubertal levels of DHEA-S and other adrenal androgens, with prepubertal levels of gonadotropins and gonadal sex steroids.

Second, there is some evidence that premature adrenarche may indicate that there was an abnormality of the intrauterine energy environment and of intrauterine growth. As mentioned above, premature adrenarche occurs more often in children with intrauterine growth retardation and in overweight children. Some of these same studies have demonstrated that some girls who display premature adrenarche may continue to have excessive androgen levels in adolescence. This can result in hirsutism or menstrual irregularities due to anovulation, referred to as polycystic ovary syndrome.

Third, at least one report[7] from 2008 found an increased incidence of behavior and school problems in a group of children with premature adrenarche compared with an otherwise similar control group. To date, such a relationship has neither been confirmed nor explained and there are no obvious management implications.

Other primates

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Adrenarche occurs in only a small number of primates, and only chimpanzees and gorillas show a pattern of adrenarche development similar to humans.[8]

See also

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References

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[edit]
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Adrenarche

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from Grokipedia
Adrenarche is the prepubertal maturation of the adrenal cortex's innermost layer, the zona reticularis, characterized by a marked increase in the production of adrenal androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfated form, DHEA-S (DHEAS).[1] This process typically begins between 6 and 8 years of age, preceding the onset of gonadarche (gonadal puberty) by 1 to 2 years, and continues gradually through adolescence, peaking in late teenage years.[1] Unlike gonadarche, which is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, adrenarche proceeds independently and can occur even in individuals with nonfunctional gonads.[2] Physiologically, adrenarche involves the differentiation and expansion of the zona reticularis cells, driven by shifts in steroidogenic enzyme expression that favor C19 androgen synthesis over glucocorticoids like cortisol.[3] Key enzymatic changes include elevated cytochrome b5A (enhancing 17,20-lyase activity), sulfotransferase 2A1 (for DHEAS sulfation), and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5, while 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity remains low, resulting in predominantly weak androgens.[3] These androgens, including bioactive forms like 11-ketotestosterone produced via alternative pathways (classic, backdoor, and 11-oxygenated), exert intracrine and paracrine effects without strong systemic feedback regulation, possibly influenced by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) patterns and factors like insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I).[1] DHEAS levels, a reliable marker, rise from near-undetectable in infancy to adult ranges by mid-adolescence, reflecting this maturation.[3] The primary developmental effects of adrenarche include pubarche (the appearance of pubic and axillary hair), stimulation of sebaceous and apocrine glands leading to acne and body odor, and mild acceleration of linear growth and bone age advancement.[3] These changes account for over 90% of isolated premature pubarche cases and contribute to the somatic aspects of early puberty without activating gonadal function.[3] Clinically, normal adrenarche is benign and primarily observed in humans and non-human primates, though premature adrenarche—defined as pubarche before age 8 in girls or 9 in boys with elevated DHEAS—is a common variant often linked to higher body mass index and requires exclusion of underlying conditions like nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia or androgen-secreting tumors (affecting 5–10% of cases).[1] Long-term, premature adrenarche is associated with modestly increased risks of insulin resistance, obesity, earlier menarche, polycystic ovary syndrome, and mood disorders, though many effects may attenuate in adulthood.[3]

Definition and Physiology

Definition

Adrenarche refers to the maturational process in the adrenal cortex characterized by the development and functional activation of the zona reticularis, resulting in a progressive increase in the production of adrenal androgens, primarily dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), its sulfated form dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), and androstenedione, typically commencing in mid-childhood.[3][4] This process marks a distinct phase of endocrine development separate from gonadarche, which involves the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis leading to gonadal maturation and sex steroid production, and from pubarche, the visible clinical sign of adrenarche manifested as the growth of pubic and axillary hair due to androgenic stimulation of pilosebaceous units.[5][6] The term "adrenarche" was coined in the 1940s by endocrinologist Fuller Albright and his colleagues to describe this adrenal-specific maturational event, recognizing it as an independent phenomenon from central puberty driven by gonadal hormones.[7] This nomenclature highlighted the adrenal gland's role in contributing to secondary sexual characteristics through androgen secretion, distinct from the more potent gonadal androgens.[8] DHEA and DHEAS serve as the principal weak androgens of adrenarche, exerting mild androgenic effects either directly via low-affinity binding to the androgen receptor or indirectly as precursors convertible to more potent androgens like testosterone in peripheral tissues such as skin and liver.[6][9] Their circulating levels rise substantially during this period, with DHEAS particularly notable for its stability and use as a biomarker of adrenarchal activity due to its long half-life and lack of significant peripheral metabolism.[3] Androstenedione complements these by providing an additional source of convertible androgen substrate, collectively driving the subtle androgenic milieu of early pubertal development without inducing full gonadal activation.[4]

Physiological Mechanisms

Adrenarche involves the maturation of the adrenal cortex, particularly the development and expansion of the zona reticularis (ZR), which becomes histologically detectable around age 6 years and fully matures by approximately age 13 years, coinciding with a marked increase in adrenal androgen production such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate ester DHEAS.[10] This development is characterized by hypertrophy of ZR cells and upregulated expression of key steroidogenic enzymes, including cytochrome P450 17A1 (CYP17A1), which catalyzes the 17α-hydroxylation and 17,20-lyase reactions essential for androgen synthesis, and a relative decrease in 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) activity within the ZR.[10] The reduced 3β-HSD expression favors the diversion of precursors toward weak androgens rather than glucocorticoids or mineralocorticoids, enabling the ZR to specialize in androgen output.[10] In addition to the classic pathway, alternative routes such as the "backdoor" pathway and 11-oxygenated androgen synthesis contribute to the production of bioactive androgens like 11-ketotestosterone, expanding the adrenal androgen repertoire during adrenarche.[1] Regulation of these changes occurs primarily through adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary, but adrenarche marks a qualitative shift in the adrenal's response to ACTH rather than an increase in ACTH levels themselves.[3] Specifically, the maturing ZR exhibits heightened sensitivity to ACTH stimulation for androgen production, driven by zona-specific alterations in steroidogenic enzyme expression and cofactor availability, such as cytochrome b5 (CYB5), which enhances the lyase activity of CYP17A1.[10] This ACTH-dependent maturation maintains basal glucocorticoid production in the zona fasciculata while promoting androgen secretion from the ZR.[3] The adrenal androgen synthesis pathway during adrenarche begins with cholesterol transport into the mitochondrial inner membrane, where CYP11A1 converts it to pregnenolone.[10] Pregnenolone is then hydroxylated at the 17α position by CYP17A1 to form 17-hydroxypregnenolone, which undergoes cleavage by the lyase activity of CYP17A1—facilitated by CYB5—to yield DHEA.[10] DHEA is subsequently sulfated by sulfotransferase 2A1 (SULT2A1) to produce the more stable DHEAS, primarily in the ZR.[10] Transcriptional regulation of this pathway involves steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1, also known as NR5A1), a nuclear receptor that binds to promoter regions of genes like SULT2A1 and CYP17A1, thereby coordinating ZR-specific enzyme expression and androgen biosynthesis.[10] Genetic factors contribute to the variability in adrenarche mechanisms, with twin studies estimating heritability at 58–61%, though specific loci remain unidentified.[1] Environmental influences, including nutritional status, modulate these processes; for instance, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) signaling, influenced by diet and body mass, may contribute to adrenal cell proliferation and differentiation, with associations between elevated IGF-1 levels and accelerated adrenarche timing.[11][1]

Timing and Occurrence

In Humans

Adrenarche in humans typically begins between the ages of 6 and 8 years in girls and 7 and 9 years in boys, marked by a gradual activation of the adrenal zona reticularis leading to increased production of adrenal androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate conjugate (DHEAS).[1] This process involves a progressive rise in serum DHEAS levels, starting from low prepubertal baselines (often below 1 μmol/L or 40 μg/dL) and reaching a peak around age 10, with levels typically increasing to 0.3–3.5 μmol/L (approximately 11–129 μg/dL) by age 8 in healthy children.[12] The onset is insidious, with urinary DHEA metabolites detectable as early as age 3, but clinical signs like pubarche (initial pubic hair development) usually appear later, around 8–11 years depending on sex and ethnicity.[1] Adrenarche occurs in nearly all individuals as a normal developmental milestone, with prevalence approaching 100% in healthy populations by early adolescence, though the exact timing exhibits individual and population-level variations.[13] Ethnic differences influence the pace, with children of African descent showing earlier onset compared to those of European or Hispanic descent; for instance, mean ages for pubarche are approximately 9.5 years in non-Hispanic Black girls versus 10.5 years in non-Hispanic White girls, and 11.1 years in non-Hispanic Black boys versus 12.0 years in non-Hispanic White boys.[1] These variations are linked to genetic and environmental factors, but adrenarche remains a universal process across human ethnic groups.[14] Serum DHEAS serves as the primary biomarker for assessing adrenarche, with levels measured via immunoassay to establish normal progression; thresholds above 1 μmol/L (40 μg/dL) indicate the biochemical onset, distinguishing it from prepubertal states where levels are typically under 0.5 μmol/L in children aged 6 months to 7 years.[12] Reference ranges vary slightly by lab and population, but by age 8, values generally fall within 0.3–3.5 μmol/L, reflecting the zona reticularis maturation without gonadal involvement.[13] The timing of adrenarche is modulated by environmental influences, including nutritional status, body mass index (BMI), and socioeconomic factors, which can accelerate or delay onset. Higher BMI, often tied to improved nutrition and energy availability, is associated with earlier adrenarche, with studies showing nearly threefold greater increases in DHEAS excretion during periods of rapid BMI gain in prepubertal children.[15] Overweight or obese children (BMI ≥85th percentile) exhibit elevated androgen levels and more advanced adrenarche compared to normal-weight peers, potentially due to adipose-derived signals enhancing adrenal activity.[16] Socioeconomic factors, such as access to better nutrition in higher-status households or catch-up growth in migrant populations, also contribute to earlier timing, though lower socioeconomic environments may delay it through chronic stress or undernutrition.[17]

In Non-Human Primates

Adrenarche, characterized by a prepubertal increase in adrenal androgen production such as dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), is present in great apes but absent or minimal in most monkey species. In chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), a mild form of adrenarche occurs with DHEAS levels rising around 2-3 years of age in wild individuals, earlier than the 6-8 years typical in humans, and without significant sex differences in timing or concentration.[18] This pattern aligns closely with human adrenarche in its prepubertal timing but features lower peak levels and a more continuous rise from early infancy, leveling off between 10-16 years.[10] Similar dynamics are observed in bonobos (Pan paniscus), where DHEAS increases after approximately 5 years, supporting adrenarche as a shared trait among African great apes.[19] In contrast, gorillas (Gorilla spp.) exhibit a later onset of adrenarche compared to chimpanzees and humans, with evidence of a transient early increase in DHEAS during infancy that does not reach the sustained prepubertal surge seen in other hominoids; absolute DHEAS concentrations in gorillas are notably lower, at about 34% of chimpanzee levels.[20][21] Among nonhuman primates, adrenarche is largely absent in Old World monkeys such as rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), which lack a distinct prepubertal DHEAS rise despite developing a functional zona reticularis postnatally, and in New World monkeys, where adrenal androgen profiles show no comparable developmental event.[22][23] This distribution highlights adrenarche as a derived trait specific to the Hominoidea superfamily (apes and humans), evolving after the divergence from Old World monkeys approximately 25 million years ago.[10] The evolutionary significance of adrenarche in hominoids lies in its association with an extended juvenile period, facilitating advanced brain development, synaptogenesis, and social cognition without accelerating sexual maturation.[24] This trait likely emerged in the last common ancestor of humans and great apes, promoting prolonged dependency and lifespan extension, as evidenced by the conserved prepubertal DHEAS dynamics across these species.[9] Nonhuman primates serve as valuable models for studying human adrenarche, with chimpanzees offering insights into its neuroendocrine regulation; however, variations between captive and wild populations underscore environmental influences, as wild chimpanzees display more pronounced and earlier DHEAS elevations than their captive counterparts, potentially reflecting natural stressors or diets.[18] Such models aid in dissecting the genetic and physiological underpinnings, though the absence of adrenarche in monkeys limits their utility for direct human analogies.[25]

Developmental Roles

In Physical Maturation

Adrenarche initiates a series of physical changes in mid-childhood, distinct from gonadal puberty, primarily through the action of adrenal androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate ester (DHEAS). These androgens stimulate the pilosebaceous units in the skin, leading to pubarche, the onset of pubic and axillary hair growth. Pubarche typically follows the biochemical onset of adrenarche by 1-2 years and serves as its most visible marker, with mean ages of appearance ranging from 9.5 to 10.5 years in girls and 11.1 to 12.3 years in boys across various ethnic groups.[1] Beyond hair growth, adrenarche promotes other somatic changes, including mild acne due to heightened sebum production, activation of apocrine sweat glands, and the emergence of adult-type body odor from the secretion of C19 adrenal steroids. These effects contribute to increased skin and hair oiliness, marking a transition toward adult physiological patterns. Additionally, subtle skeletal alterations occur, such as advanced bone age and a modest acceleration in growth velocity, which can result in temporary tall stature relative to peers.[1][3] Sex differences are prominent in these manifestations, with pubarche and associated hair growth appearing earlier and often more noticeably in girls compared to boys, potentially influenced by variations in androgen metabolism and body composition. The development of adult body odor is a shared outcome but aligns with the timing of these androgen-driven changes. Adrenarche androgens also interact with the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) axis, enhancing IGF-1's effects on linear growth and supporting the prepubertal growth spurt, as evidenced by correlations between elevated adrenal androgen levels, higher IGF-1 concentrations, and advanced height in mid-childhood.[1][3][26]

In Cognitive and Behavioral Changes

Adrenarche, characterized by the increased production of adrenal androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), plays a significant role in modulating brain development during middle childhood. DHEA influences the maturation of the prefrontal cortex, a region critical for executive functions like decision-making and impulse control, by promoting cortical thickness changes in interaction with testosterone.[27] This androgenic activity enhances neural connectivity in areas associated with social cognition, including the ability to interpret others' intentions and emotions.[28] Through these mechanisms, adrenarche supports the refinement of cognitive processes that underpin adaptive social interactions. During the transition from early to middle childhood, typically around ages 5-8, adrenarche contributes to notable behavioral shifts. Elevated DHEA levels are linked to increased risk-taking behaviors, particularly in boys, as evidenced by associations with conduct problems in large cohort studies.[29] Concurrently, these hormones influence emotional regulation by altering amygdala-insula connectivity, which can heighten emotional reactivity and anxiety in girls while fostering overall emotional processing maturity.[29] Peer orientation also intensifies, with DHEAS correlating to peer relationship challenges and social conflicts, reflecting a growing focus on group dynamics and interpersonal navigation.[29][30] Recent research up to 2025 highlights adrenarche's connections to variations in autism spectrum traits. A 2025 systematic review proposes two developmental trajectories for autism, with one emerging during middle childhood tied to adrenarcheal androgen surges that disrupt social cognition pathways.[31] DHEAS levels show mixed but notable correlations with theory of mind development, where elevated concentrations in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are associated with impaired social understanding, though not consistently across all studies.[31] These findings underscore adrenarche as a potential sensitive period for neurodiversity in social processing. From an evolutionary perspective, adrenarche facilitates prolonged juvenility in humans, extending the period of dependency and learning beyond that seen in other primates. This hormonal phase supports the development of complex social behaviors by enhancing brain plasticity for cultural transmission and social competition.[32] By acting as a developmental switch, it integrates environmental cues to promote adaptive strategies, such as status negotiation and alliance formation, which are essential for human sociality.[32]

Clinical Aspects

Premature Adrenarche

Premature adrenarche refers to the early activation of the adrenal zona reticularis leading to increased production of adrenal androgens, manifesting as pubarche (development of pubic hair) before age 8 years in girls or 9 years in boys, often accompanied by elevated serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels and other signs such as axillary hair, acne, or adult-like body odor.[3] This condition accounts for the majority of cases of premature pubarche and is considered a benign variant of normal adrenarche in most instances, typically occurring after age 4 years.[3] Prevalence varies by population but is reported to affect approximately 8-9% of girls and 1-2% of boys in some cohorts, with a higher incidence in girls and associations with factors like low birth weight or obesity.[33] The etiology of premature adrenarche is idiopathic in the vast majority of cases, reflecting an exaggerated or early expression of the normal maturational process without identifiable pathology.[1] Rare causes include nonclassical congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NCCAH), particularly 21-hydroxylase deficiency, which accounts for 5-10% of cases, or adrenal tumors such as adrenocortical carcinoma that produce excess androgens.[3] These pathological mimics are more likely when clinical features are severe or atypical, such as rapid virilization or very high androgen levels. Diagnosis relies on a combination of clinical evaluation and laboratory testing to confirm adrenal androgen excess while excluding underlying disorders. Key clinical signs include isolated pubarche with or without accelerated growth, but without breast development or significant bone age advancement beyond expectations.[1] Laboratory confirmation involves measuring basal DHEAS levels, typically elevated above 1 μmol/L (or 40-50 μg/dL), alongside normal levels of gonadotropins and estradiol to distinguish it from central precocious puberty.[3][1] An adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation test is essential to rule out NCCAH, where a post-stimulation 17-hydroxyprogesterone level below 1000 ng/dL (10 ng/mL) indicates a normal response; bone age assessment via X-ray and pelvic ultrasound may be used to evaluate skeletal maturation and exclude ovarian pathology, respectively.[3] Management of idiopathic premature adrenarche focuses on reassurance, as it is generally self-limited and does not require hormonal suppression. Parents are educated on the benign nature of the condition and potential for normal pubertal progression, with emphasis on hygiene for associated symptoms like body odor.[1] Ongoing monitoring is advised, including assessments of height, weight, Tanner staging, and bone age every 6-12 months to detect any advancement toward central precocious puberty or metabolic changes.[3] For underlying causes like NCCAH, specific treatments such as glucocorticoids are instituted, while lifestyle modifications are recommended for overweight children to address associated risks.[1]

Long-Term Health Associations

Premature adrenarche (PA) has been linked to several long-term metabolic risks in adulthood, particularly insulin resistance and obesity. A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis found that children with PA exhibit significantly higher fasting insulin levels (mean difference: 15.04 pmol/L, 95% CI: 5.27-24.81) and elevated body mass index standard deviation scores (mean difference: 0.36, 95% CI: 0.03-0.69) compared to controls, suggesting a predisposition to metabolic dysfunction that persists into adulthood.[34] These associations are exacerbated by concurrent obesity, increasing the likelihood of insulin resistance, though no significant differences in fasting glucose or HOMA-IR were observed in the pooled data.[34] In females, early adrenarche is associated with an increased risk of developing polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in adulthood, which can impair reproductive health. A 2021 cohort study of young adult women with a history of PA reported a higher prevalence of PCOS features, including hyperandrogenism (e.g., hirsutism in 27% vs. 0% of controls) and ovarian morphology changes, compared to controls.[35] This connection stems from sustained adrenal androgen exposure, which may disrupt ovarian function and contribute to ovulatory dysfunction.[35] Consequently, women with PA face potential fertility challenges, as PCOS is a leading cause of infertility due to anovulation, though early intervention in childhood may mitigate some risks.[35] Regarding other outcomes, recent research indicates no significant cognitive deficits in adulthood following PA. A 2024 longitudinal study of young adult women (mean age 18.5 years) with a history of PA found no differences in full-scale IQ or subdomain scores on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV compared to matched controls, suggesting that early androgen elevations do not impair long-term cognitive performance.[36] However, elevated androgens from PA may contribute to possible cardiovascular risks later in life, primarily through indirect pathways like dyslipidemia and endothelial dysfunction. though direct causation remains under investigation.[37] Prenatal factors, such as maternal psychological distress, can accelerate adrenarche timing and are associated with later mental health outcomes in offspring. A 2023 prospective study demonstrated that elevated maternal prenatal distress predicts earlier adrenarche and higher dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels in daughters, potentially programming heightened stress reactivity.[38] Emerging 2025 research further connects this accelerated adrenarche in girls at familial risk for depression to increased vulnerability for internalizing disorders in adolescence and adulthood, highlighting a pathway from prenatal stress to enduring mental health risks.[39]

References

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