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Lobelia cardinalis
Lobelia cardinalis
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Lobelia cardinalis

Secure  (NatureServe)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Campanulaceae
Genus: Lobelia
Species:
L. cardinalis
Binomial name
Lobelia cardinalis
Synonyms[3]
List
    • Dortmanna cardinalis (L.) Kuntze
    • Dortmanna cordigera (Cav.) Kuntze
    • Dortmanna engelmanniana Kuntze
    • Dortmanna fulgens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kuntze
    • Dortmanna graminea (Lam.) Kuntze
    • Dortmanna longifolia (C.Presl) Kuntze
    • Dortmanna phyllostachya (Engelm.) Kuntze
    • Dortmanna splendens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Kuntze
    • Lobelia cardinalis f. alba (J.McNab) H.St.John
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. alba J.McNab
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. angustifolia Vatke
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. candida Alph.Wood
    • Lobelia cardinalis f. cordigera (Cav.) Bowden
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. glandulosa N.Coleman
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. graminea (Lam.) McVaugh
    • Lobelia cardinalis subsp. graminea (Lam.) McVaugh
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. hispidula E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia cardinalis f. hispidula (E.Wimm.) Bowden
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. integerrima Alph.Wood
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. meridionalis Bowden
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. multiflora (Paxton) McVaugh
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. phyllostachya (Engelm.) McVaugh
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. propinqua (Paxton) Bowden
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. pseudosplendens McVaugh
    • Lobelia cardinalis f. rosea H.St.John
    • Lobelia cardinalis var. texensis (Raf.) Rothr.
    • Lobelia coccinea (Moench) Stokes
    • Lobelia cordigera Cav.
    • Lobelia cordigera var. fatalis E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia cordigera var. marryattiae (Paxton) E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia cordigera var. multiflora (Paxton) E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia fulgens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
    • Lobelia fulgens f. atrosanguinea (Hook.) Voss
    • Lobelia fulgens var. multiflora Paxton
    • Lobelia fulgens var. propinqua Paxton
    • Lobelia fulgens var. pyramidalis Paxton
    • Lobelia graminea Lam.
    • Lobelia graminea var. intermedia E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia graminea f. kerneri (L.Nagy) E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia graminea var. phyllostachya (Engelm.) E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia ignea Paxton
    • Lobelia kerneri L.Nagy
    • Lobelia longifolia (C.Presl) A.DC.
    • Lobelia marryattiae Paxton
    • Lobelia mucronata Engelm.
    • Lobelia phyllostachya Engelm.
    • Lobelia porphyrantha Decne. ex Groenland
    • Lobelia princeps Otto & A.Dietr.
    • Lobelia propinqua J.W.Loudon
    • Lobelia punicea Otto & A.Dietr.
    • Lobelia punicea var. kerneri (L.Nagy) E.Wimm.
    • Lobelia ramosa Burb.
    • Lobelia schiedeana Heynh.
    • Lobelia splendens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
    • Lobelia splendens var. atrosanguinea Hook.
    • Lobelia splendens var. fulgens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) S.Watson
    • Lobelia splendens var. ignea Hook.
    • Lobelia texensis Raf.
    • Rapuntium cardinale (L.) Mill.
    • Rapuntium coccineum Moench
    • Rapuntium cordigerum (Cav.) C.Presl
    • Rapuntium fulgens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) C.Presl
    • Rapuntium gramineum (Lam.) C.Presl
    • Rapuntium longifolium C.Presl
    • Rapuntium splendens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) C.Presl
    • Tupa ignescens Payer

Lobelia cardinalis, the cardinal flower (syn. L. fulgens), is a species of flowering plant in the bellflower family Campanulaceae native to the Americas, from southeastern Canada south through the eastern and southwestern United States, Mexico and Central America to northern Colombia.[4]

Description and habitat

[edit]

Lobelia cardinalis is a perennial herbaceous plant which grows up to 1.2 m (4 ft) tall. It is found primarily in wet places, such as riparian zones, riverbanks, bogs or swamps. It is also sometimes found in damp or semi-flooded and shaded forest areas.[5] The plant tends to occupy locations near a water source, providing its roots with consistent hydration via groundwater from the saturated soil. It may be found growing slightly away from or closer to the water, and may even be found growing aquatically, with some or all of the plant submerged and its flowers rising from the surface.[5]

The leaves are up to 20 cm (8 in) long and 5 cm (2 in) broad, lanceolate to oval, featuring a toothed margin. The flowers are usually vibrant red, have five deep lobes, and are up to 4 cm across; they are produced via an erect raceme, up to 70 cm (28 in) tall, during the summer and into the fall. Some forms with white (f. alba) and pink (f. rosea) flowers are also known.[6]

L. cardinalis is related to two other Lobelia species found in the Eastern United States, Lobelia inflata ('Indian tobacco') and Lobelia siphilitica ('great lobelia'). As is typical of the genus, all display the characteristic "lip" petal near the opening of the flower and a "milky" secretion when the plant is broken. L. siphilitica has blue flowers and is primarily pollinated by bees, whereas L. cardinalis is red, and is primarily pollinated by the ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris).[7]

L. cardinalis on the banks of the Ichetucknee River, Columbia County, Florida

Etymology

[edit]

Lobelia cardinalis was first introduced to Europe in the mid-1620s; the name 'cardinal flower' was in use by 1629, likely due to the similarity of the flower's color to the vesture of Roman Catholic Cardinals.[8]

Growing and cultivars

[edit]

In cultivation, L. cardinalis requires rich, fairly deep soil which remains reliably moist—yet sufficiently aerated—all year-round; alternatively, it may be grown as an accent plant in or along ponds, fountains or other garden water features, with its pot positioned so it can always access water. If not planted in or around a water source, L. cardinalis tends to prefer for its roots to stay cool, something achieved when grown in dappled sun or part shade.[9] The cultivar 'Queen Victoria' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[10][11]

This plant is easily propagated by seed or by dividing-out the young plants, which are seen forming around the older, more mature plants each year. Although the plant is generally considered a perennial, they may be short-lived, or behave more as a "long-term annual".

Within the freshwater planted aquarium and aquascaping hobbies, the species is used somewhat frequently.[12] At least one new variety has been developed and is available commercially, Lobelia cardinalis 'Mini', with small and compact green leaves.[13][14]

Medicinal and other uses

[edit]

The Zuni people use this plant as an ingredient of "schumaakwe cakes" and used it externally for rheumatism and swelling.[15] The Penobscot people smoked the dried leaves as a substitute for tobacco. It may also have been chewed.[16]

Toxicity

[edit]

As a member of the Lobelia genus, L. cardinalis contains a number of naturally occurring, toxic alkaloids, including lobelanine and lobeline,[17] thus rendering the species potentially harmful if ingested.[18] Various negative physical symptoms may manifest upon consuming even small or mid-sized quantities of the plant, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, excessive salivation, fatigue/exhaustion, weakness, dilation of pupils, convulsions, and even coma.[17]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lobelia cardinalis

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Lobelia cardinalis, commonly known as cardinal flower, is an herbaceous perennial in the Campanulaceae family, native to the and parts of , characterized by its vibrant scarlet tubular flowers that form striking terminal spikes up to 8 inches long. These flowers, which bloom from July to October, feature a two-lipped corolla formed by five united petals—three spreading lower lobes and two erect upper lobes—and are primarily pollinated by hummingbirds due to their nectar-rich structure. The typically grows 2 to 5 feet tall with lance-shaped, serrated leaves that are 3 to 6 inches long and dark green, often tinged with purple or bronze, forming clumps 1 to 2 feet wide. Thriving in moist, rich soils along stream banks, marshes, and low woodland edges, L. cardinalis prefers full sun to partial shade and tolerates periodic flooding, making it well-suited to habitats across USDA hardiness zones 3 to 9. Ecologically, it supports by attracting , bees, and especially ruby-throated hummingbirds, which are its primary pollinators, and produces seeds in two-celled capsules that aid in natural dispersal. Named after the 16th-century Matthias de l'Obel, the species has cultural significance as a native , designated as North Carolina's Wildflower of the Year multiple times (1982, 1983, 2001), though it is mildly toxic if ingested in large quantities, causing and . In , L. cardinalis is valued for its ornamental appeal in rain gardens, woodland borders, and moist meadows, where it provides late-summer color and supports conservation efforts, though it requires consistent moisture to prevent in dry conditions. Cultivars like , with deeper red flowers and bronze foliage, enhance its garden versatility, but the species is best propagated from or division to maintain .

Taxonomy

Classification

Lobelia cardinalis belongs to the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Asterales, family Campanulaceae, genus Lobelia, and species L. cardinalis. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his seminal work Species Plantarum in 1753. The accepted name is Lobelia cardinalis L., with notable synonyms including Lobelia fulgens Mill. and Lobelia splendens Sweet. Some floras recognize infraspecific variation within L. cardinalis, such as the typical var. cardinalis and var. pseudosplendens McVaugh (recognized in the Jepson Manual, differing in floral morphology and occurring in western North America); however, the species is often treated as monotypic. Phylogenetically, L. cardinalis is placed within the diverse genus Lobelia, which comprises approximately 440 species distributed primarily across tropical and temperate regions, with a significant concentration in the Americas; it shares close relations with North American congeners such as L. siphilitica L. (great blue lobelia) in the sect. Lobelia.

Etymology

The genus name Lobelia honors the Flemish botanist and physician Matthias de l'Obel (1538–1616), who co-authored early botanical works such as Stirpium Adversaria Nova (1570) and advanced plant classification based on leaf characteristics. The specific epithet cardinalis derives from the Latin word for "cardinal," alluding to the plant's vivid scarlet-red flowers, which resemble the red robes or miters worn by Roman Catholic cardinals. This epithet was adopted by in 1753, drawing from pre-Linnaean that referred to the plant or related species as "of the cardinal" due to its striking coloration and form. Prior to Linnaeus's binomial system, species now classified under were sometimes known by names such as Trachelium (evoking throat-like flower structures) or Rapunculus (referring to root shapes in related campanulaceous plants), reflecting early European herbalists' descriptive approaches. Common names for L. cardinalis include cardinal flower, reflecting its color association; Indian pink, possibly alluding to indigenous uses or flower shape; and red lobelia or scarlet lobelia, emphasizing the bloom's hue with regional variations in the .

Description

Physical characteristics

Lobelia cardinalis is a herbaceous plant that grows 0.6–1.2 m (2–4 ft) tall, forming clumps from a with erect, unbranched stems arising from basal rosettes. The stems are upright or slightly angled, circular in cross-section, and typically glabrous or sparsely hairy between nodes. The leaves are alternate, simple, and lanceolate to oblong (sometimes ovate), measuring 5–20 cm long and 2–5.5 cm wide, with coarsely toothed margins and pointed tips. Lower leaves are petiolate, while upper ones become sessile or clasping at the stem; the blade is usually three to five times longer than wide and dark green, occasionally with sparse hairs. The flowers are tubular and bilabiate, 3–4.5 cm long, with a bright scarlet-red corolla (rarely white or pink in some variants), featuring an arched upper with two lobes and a spreading lower with three more prominent lobes. They are arranged in terminal racemes up to 50 cm long, with flowers spiraling around the axis and blooming from to . The long corolla tubes, formed by fused petals and supported by filaments 2.4–3.3 cm long, are adapted for by hummingbirds. The overall habit is clump-forming, with shallow fibrous roots that produce offshoots for vegetative spread.

Reproduction and life cycle

Lobelia cardinalis is a short-lived herbaceous that completes its life cycle over multiple years, typically living for a few seasons before senescing. It overwinters as a basal rosette of leaves or root crown, which serves as a for nutrients during . New shoots emerge in spring from these structures, forming foliage that supports growth throughout the growing season. The plant exhibits monocarpic behavior at the stem level, with each flowering stem producing blooms only once before withering, though the overall plant can produce multiple stems over its lifespan. Flowering is typically triggered by environmental cues such as increasing day length and adequate in to , leading to inflorescences that develop from to early fall. set occurs following successful , primarily by hummingbirds, resulting in the formation of dehiscent capsules. Each capsule contains numerous small , often numbering in the thousands per healthy flowering stem (up to approximately 5,000), which are less than 1 mm in size and dispersed primarily by wind or water due to their lightweight nature. requires exposure to and moist, cool conditions, typically occurring in spring after a period of winter chilling, though cold stratification is not strictly necessary for viability. must remain on or near the surface for successful establishment, with high rates under suitable . Vegetative reproduction is occasional and secondary to , occurring through the development of offsets or basal rosettes from the parent plant, as well as natural layering when stems become partially buried and root at nodes. This allows for localized clonal spread, though the species relies mainly on seed production for population maintenance. Phenologically, L. cardinalis initiates growth with rosette foliage in spring, transitions to flowering from through depending on and , and matures seeds by autumn (typically ), after which aboveground parts die back for overwintering. This cycle aligns with seasonal moisture availability in its habitats, ensuring before .

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Lobelia cardinalis is native to eastern and central , extending southward through and to northern . In , its range spans from southern Canadian provinces including , , , southward across the from to , and westward through the central and southwestern states to , , , , , , , and . Disjunct populations occur in across multiple regions (central, Gulf, northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest), as well as in Central American countries such as , , , , , , and , and in . The species has been introduced outside its native range primarily as an , with occasional escapes reported in , including the and , where it was first brought in the mid-1620s. In , it is cultivated in locations such as but has not established persistent wild populations. Introduced occurrences remain sporadic and do not form extensive naturalized distributions. Globally, Lobelia cardinalis is considered secure (G5) by NatureServe and least concern by the (as of 2016), reflecting its wide distribution and abundance in suitable . However, it is locally rare at the northern periphery of its range, such as in parts of and the upper Midwest , where habitat loss from drainage and development has reduced populations.

Habitat preferences

Lobelia cardinalis thrives in wet environments, favoring sunny to partially shaded sites such as streambanks, river edges, marshes, swamps, and wet meadows. These locations provide the consistent essential for its growth, with the often emerging along waterways where levels fluctuate seasonally. The species prefers moist, fertile soils that are loamy or sandy, rich in , and with a neutral to slightly acidic ranging from 6.0 to 7.0. It tolerates periodic flooding, which mimics natural riparian conditions, but cannot withstand prolonged , as dry soils lead to reduced vigor and flowering. In terms of climate, L. cardinalis is adapted to temperate and subtropical regions, suitable for USDA hardiness zones 3 through 9, where high humidity and reliable moisture support its perennial habit. It commonly associates with other wetland , such as (jewelweed) and (New York ironweed), in riparian plant communities that stabilize stream edges. Habitat threats include wetland drainage for development and pollution from agricultural runoff, both of which degrade water quality and reduce available moist sites, impacting population viability.

Ecology

Pollination

Lobelia cardinalis is primarily pollinated by the ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris), which is attracted to the plant's vivid red flowers and abundant supply. These birds insert their long bills into the tubular corollas to access the nectar, inadvertently transferring from one flower to another during visits. Secondary pollinators include certain , such as swallowtail species (Papilio spp.), and long-tongued bees, though these often access nectar less efficiently and contribute minimally to pollination compared to hummingbirds. The floral structure of L. cardinalis exhibits adaptations suited to , including long tubular corollas measuring 2–3 cm in length that restrict access to pollinators with elongated mouthparts. is presented secondarily, with anthers positioned such that is pushed to the flower's apex and transferred via the bird's bill or an insect's during feeding. This is specialized for , featuring high volumes—up to 10 µl per flower—but relatively low concentrations around 20–25%, which facilitates rapid consumption by the birds. Although L. cardinalis is self-compatible, allowing for potential self-fertilization, its protandrous flowering—where male-phase flowers precede female-phase ones—strongly favors and thereby enhances within populations. Cross-pollination is essential for optimal seed set, as can reduce progeny fitness. Pollination peaks in late summer, coinciding with the southward migration of ruby-throated hummingbirds, ensuring effective pollen transfer during this critical period.

Wildlife interactions

Lobelia cardinalis serves as an important late-season nectar and pollen source for various insects, including butterflies, bees, and moths, which forage on its vibrant red flowers from midsummer through early fall. This role supports insect populations in wetland ecosystems, enhancing overall biodiversity by providing essential resources during a critical period when other floral options may diminish. The 's small seeds are consumed by seed-eating birds, such as American goldfinches, contributing to avian nutrition in riparian and habitats. Foliage is occasionally browsed by , though such herbivory remains minimal due to the presence of toxic alkaloids like lobeline, which deter most mammalian grazers. In terms of services, Lobelia cardinalis helps stabilize streambanks and edges through its , reducing in moist, disturbed areas. Classified as a facultative (FACW) species, it acts as an indicator of health, signaling the presence of consistently moist conditions essential for diverse aquatic and semi-aquatic communities. The species co-occurs with amphibians, such as frogs and salamanders, in its preferred moist habitats, where shared environments foster indirect symbiotic benefits through habitat overlap. Additionally, it attracts beneficial predatory , including parasitoids and generalist predators, which help control pest populations by feeding on herbivorous in the surrounding . While herbivory is generally low, overbrowsing by deer in disturbed or fragmented habitats can occasionally reduce local populations of , particularly where natural deterrents are less effective due to high animal densities.

Cultivation

Growing requirements

thrives in sites with consistently moist conditions, such as rain gardens, pond edges, or boggy areas, where it receives full sun to partial shade. The plant requires well-drained soils rich in that remain moist, with supplemental watering during dry periods to mimic its native preferences; applying helps retain and suppress weeds. It is hardy in USDA zones 3 through 9, though in colder regions within this range, mulching around the base in late fall protects the basal rosettes from winter . For optimal growth, space 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 inches) apart to allow for natural clumping, and pair them with companions like ferns or asters in mixed borders to enhance and visual appeal. Maintenance involves dividing clumps every 3 to 4 years in spring or fall to rejuvenate vigor and prevent decline, along with sparing applications of low-nitrogen at the start of growth to avoid excessive foliage at the expense of blooms.

Propagation and cultivars

Lobelia cardinalis can be propagated effectively through seeds or vegetative means. For seed propagation, fresh seeds are best sown in fall directly outdoors to take advantage of natural stratification, or they can be cold-stratified indoors for 60 days at around 4°C before sowing in spring. Germination typically occurs in 14–21 days under light exposure at temperatures of 18–21°C, with consistent moisture and a well-draining medium. Vegetative propagation offers reliable alternatives, particularly for maintaining specific traits. Division of root crowns is best performed in early spring, separating the young offsets around established clumps and replanting them immediately in moist soil. Basal cuttings taken in spring or stem cuttings (4–6 cm long, with lower leaves removed) root readily in a mix of moist sand and peat under high humidity, often within 2–3 weeks when treated with rooting hormone. Several cultivars of L. cardinalis have been developed for enhanced ornamental qualities. 'Queen Victoria' features striking blood-red flowers atop bronze-purple foliage, reaching 90–120 cm in height. 'Alba' produces pure white flowers, offering a contrast to the species' typical scarlet blooms. In cultivation, L. cardinalis is short-lived, typically persisting only 2–3 years without consistent moisture, necessitating periodic division to sustain populations. It readily hybridizes with L. siphilitica, producing intermediates like L. × speciosa with mixed blue-red flowers, which can complicate seed-grown stands. Despite these challenges, the plant is widely available commercially as nursery stock, promoted for pollinator gardens due to its appeal to hummingbirds and butterflies.

Uses

Ornamental applications

Lobelia cardinalis, commonly known as cardinal flower, is prized in ornamental gardening for its vivid scarlet blooms and tall, upright spikes that add striking vertical interest to landscapes. Growing 2 to 5 feet tall, it functions as a bold accent plant in perennial borders, edges, and rain gardens, where its intense red color contrasts effectively with green foliage and other . This native thrives in moist settings, making it ideal for water features such as margins or banks, as well as native and gardens. Planting in masses amplifies its dramatic effect, creating vibrant displays that extend the blooming season into late summer and early fall, typically lasting 1 to 1.5 months from July to October. It pairs well with white asters or yellow-flowered rudbeckias to enhance color contrast and visual appeal in garden designs. The flower's tubular shape attracts hummingbirds and , boosting its value in wildlife-friendly gardens by adding ecological interest alongside aesthetic beauty. Introduced to European gardens in the mid-1620s, L. cardinalis has a long history of ornamental cultivation, and contemporary native plant initiatives promote its use for low-maintenance, sustainable displays in moist sites. However, it requires consistent moisture to prevent stems from flopping, particularly in taller specimens or drier conditions.

Medicinal applications

Lobelia cardinalis has been utilized in traditional Native American medicine, particularly by the Iroquois, who prepared a root tea as an emetic to treat stomach aches and used the plant in mixtures with other herbs to enhance their potency. The Iroquois also applied decoctions or poultices of mashed roots, stems, leaves, and blossoms for cramps and fever sores. The Cherokee employed infusions of the root to address worms, stomach troubles, , and , often in small doses due to its strength. They also used leaf infusions for colds and fevers, and leaf poultices for headaches and compounds for pain relief. Other tribes, such as the , used root infusions specifically for typhoid. The plant contains alkaloids such as lobinaline, structurally similar to lobeline found in related Lobelia species like L. inflata, which contributed to historical applications of those species in 19th-century remedies for respiratory conditions like , including in vaporizers and expectorants. Note that some medicinal uses attributed to lobelias historically may pertain to related species like L. inflata or L. siphilitica. However, these uses were largely discontinued due to associated risks, including from the alkaloids. In modern contexts, Lobelia cardinalis is not recommended by herbalists for medicinal purposes owing to its potential toxicity and lack of robust safety data. Preliminary studies have explored alkaloids such as lobeline from related Lobelia species for potential roles in smoking cessation, drawing on nicotine-like effects, but evidence remains limited and inconclusive. Traditional preparations include root or leaf infusions as teas, poultices from crushed parts, and modern tinctures, all administered cautiously in small doses to minimize adverse effects.

Toxicity

Chemical compounds

Lobelia cardinalis contains a variety of bioactive chemical compounds, predominantly , which are derivatives characteristic of the . The primary alkaloid is lobinaline, a binitrogenous compound constituting the majority of the alkaloid fraction in plant tissues such as seeds and foliage. Lobinaline exhibits nicotinic receptor activity, binding to subtypes such as α4β2 and α7 with potential implications for neurological modulation. In addition to alkaloids, L. cardinalis harbors other secondary metabolites, including and coumarins primarily in the leaves and roots, which contribute to the plant's properties, as well as resins that may aid in structural or defensive roles. The flowers produce rich in sugars, serving as a reward for pollinators and comprising mainly , glucose, and in varying ratios depending on floral development stage. Alkaloid biosynthesis in L. cardinalis occurs via pathways involving or as precursors, leading to ring formation, with lobinaline derived from specific condensation steps confirmed through tracer studies using labeled acetate and ornithine. These compounds are concentrated in foliage and seeds, where they provide , and their levels fluctuate by plant part—higher in aerial tissues—and seasonally, peaking during reproductive phases. Extraction traditionally involves water-based decoctions of aerial parts for preparations, while modern methods employ methanolic extraction followed by acid-base partitioning and fractionation to isolate pure alkaloids like lobinaline for pharmacological analysis. Compared to the related species (Indian tobacco), L. cardinalis exhibits a similar profile but with notably lower overall concentrations and a distinct emphasis on lobinaline as the dominant compound, whereas L. inflata features higher levels of lobeline and over 20 alkaloids.

Health effects and precautions

is toxic when ingested in large quantities, with all parts of the plant containing such as lobinaline that can induce symptoms including , , , excessive salivation, , tremors, convulsions, and potentially or respiratory depression. The toxicity arises primarily from these , which mimic nicotine's effects on the . Lobinaline exhibits low mammalian toxicity relative to other alkaloids. For humans, accidental ingestion typically results in gastrointestinal distress, while historical overdoses from medicinal preparations have caused more severe outcomes like , rapid heartbeat, and respiratory issues. Livestock such as and goats are particularly susceptible, exhibiting symptoms like profuse salivation, , and convulsions upon consumption; pets including dogs, cats, and horses experience similar effects, including depression, , , and heart rhythm disturbances. Although the plant may pose risks to birds that ingest foliage or seeds, hummingbirds remain unaffected as they primarily consume from the flowers without accessing the toxic alkaloids. Precautions include avoiding any internal use of the plant, as it is considered unsafe for oral consumption; pregnant or nursing individuals and children should steer clear due to the risk of severe and systemic effects. When handling the plant, wearing gloves is advisable to prevent potential skin irritation from sap or alkaloids. In cases of suspected , immediate medical or veterinary attention is essential, with treatment focusing on supportive care such as administration of activated to bind toxins and prevent absorption, alongside monitoring for cardiac and neurological symptoms. The U.S. (FDA) has classified lobelia extracts, including those derived from L. cardinalis, as unsafe for use in products since December 1, 1993, prohibiting their marketing for therapeutic purposes without a prescription.

References

  1. https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/lobelia_cardinalis.shtml
  2. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/lobelia-cardinalis/
  3. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/cardinal-flower-lobelia-cardinalis/
  4. https://www.gbif.org/species/5408269
  5. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:142115-2
  6. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=LOCA2
  7. https://swbiodiversity.org/seinet/taxa/index.php?taxauthid=1&taxon=2596&clid=2693
  8. https://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/eflora/eflora_display.php?tid=60969
  9. https://www.britannica.com/plant/Lobelia
  10. https://www.phytoneuron.net/2016Phytoneuron/76PhytoN-LobeliaAlabama.pdf
  11. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30001605-2
  12. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=278870
  13. https://www.bbg.org/article/cardinal_flower
  14. https://vnps.org/1991-cardinal-flower-lobelia-cardinalis/
  15. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=loca2
  16. https://nativeplantgardener.ca/lobelia-cardinalis/
  17. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/lobelia/cardinalis/
  18. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/cs_loca2.pdf
  19. https://understory.nrem.iastate.edu/species/lobelia-cardinalis
  20. https://www.fnai.org/PDFs/FieldGuides/Lobelia_cardinalis_var_cardinalis.pdf
  21. https://tpwd.texas.gov/huntwild/wild/species/cardinalflower/
  22. https://npn.rngr.net/renderNPNProtocolDetails?selectedProtocolIds=campanulaceae-lobelia-1536
  23. https://bplant.org/plant/251
  24. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/1/2199
  25. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.153707/Lobelia_cardinalis
  26. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/64317175/67729977
  27. https://www.thespruce.com/growing-cardinal-flowers-5093922
  28. https://wildadirondacks.org/adirondack-wildflowers-cardinal-flower-lobelia-cardinalis.html
  29. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12094066/
  30. https://northernwoodlands.org/articles/article/hummingbirds-cardinal-flowers-pollination
  31. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2425970
  32. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985AmJB...72..303D/abstract
  33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2445668
  34. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1992.tb02076.x
  35. http://www.texasthestateofwater.org/screening/pdf_docs/fact_sheets/cardinal_flower.pdf
  36. https://springfieldmuseums.org/how-to-make-a-pollinator-garden-lm/
  37. https://www.organicgrowersschool.org/s/Top-Native-Pollinator-Plants-Resource.pdf
  38. https://westboroughlandtrust.org/nn/nn33
  39. https://www.beaverwatershedalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Riparian-Planting-Guide-Ozarks-Update.pdf
  40. https://dnr.maryland.gov/criticalarea/Documents/chesapeakenatives.pdf
  41. https://www.changehampton.org/native-plants/cardinal-flower/
  42. https://www.audubonva.org/s/AAH_top-10-deer-resistant.pdf
  43. https://extension.psu.edu/rain-garden-plants-cardinal-flower/
  44. https://extension.umd.edu/resource/cardinal-flower
  45. https://www.uaex.uada.edu/yard-garden/resource-library/plant-week/cardinal-flower-9-25-09.aspx
  46. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AG402
  47. https://arboretum.wisc.edu/content/uploads/2015/03/PI_Cardinal-Flower.pdf
  48. https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/wildflowers-for-mississippi-meadows-and-gardens
  49. https://extension.purdue.edu/county/hendricks/4h-youth/wildflowers---level-7.pdf
  50. https://www.gcc.mass.edu/oll/plants/cardinal-flower/
  51. https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=LOSP2
  52. https://friendsofeloisebutler.org/pages/plants/cardinalflower.html
  53. https://www.illinoiswildflowers.info/wetland/plants/cardinal.htm
  54. https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/plantguide/pdf/pg_loca2.pdf
  55. http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Lobelia%2Bcardinalis
  56. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5299595/
  57. https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/lobelia
  58. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/pharmacology/articles/10.3389/fphar.2021.638210/full
  59. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/v71-064
  60. https://www.academia.edu/17013635/Visualizing_a_Plant_Defense_and_Insect_Counterploy_Alkaloid_Distribution_in_Lobelia_Leaves_Trenched_by_a_Plusiine_Caterpillar
  61. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/lobelia/
  62. https://www.rxlist.com/supplements/lobelia.htm
  63. https://poisonousplants.ansci.cornell.edu/php/plants.php?action=indiv&byname=common&keynum=53
  64. https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/cardinal-flower
  65. https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-231/lobelia
  66. https://wagwalking.com/condition/lobelia-poisoning
  67. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-D/part-310
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