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Common beta emitters
Common beta emitters
Common beta emitters
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Various radionuclides emit beta particles (high-speed electrons or positrons) through radioactive decay of their atomic nucleus. These can be used in a range of different industrial, scientific, and medical applications. This article lists some common beta-emitting radionuclides of technological importance, and their properties.

Fission products

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Strontium

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Strontium-90 is a commonly used beta emitter used in industrial sources. It decays to yttrium-90, which is itself a beta emitter. It is also used as a thermal power source in radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) power packs. These use heat produced by radioactive decay of strontium-90 to generate heat, which can be converted to electricity using a thermocouple. Strontium-90 has a shorter half-life, produces less power, and requires more shielding than plutonium-238, but is cheaper as it is a fission product and is present in a high concentration in nuclear waste and can be relatively easily chemically extracted. Strontium-90 based RTGs have been used to power remote lighthouses.[1] As strontium is water-soluble, the perovskite form strontium titanate is usually employed as it is not water-soluble and has a high melting point.[2]

Strontium-89 is a short-lived beta emitter which has been used as a treatment for bone tumors; it is used in palliative care in terminal cancer cases. Both strontium-89 and strontium-90 are fission products.

Neutron activation products

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Tritium

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Tritium is a low-energy beta emitter commonly used as a radiotracer in research and in self-powered lighting. The half-life of tritium is 12.3 years. The electrons from beta emission from tritium are so low in energy (average decay energy 5.7 keV) that a Geiger counter cannot be used to detect them. An advantage of the low energy of the decay is that it is easy to shield, since the low-energy electrons penetrate only to shallow depths, reducing the safety issues in deal with the isotope.

Tritium can also be found in metal work in the form of a tritiated rust, this can be treated by heating the steel in a furnace to drive off the tritium-containing water.

Tritium can be made by the neutron irradiation of lithium.

Carbon

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Carbon-14 is also commonly used as a beta source in research, it is commonly used as a radiotracer in organic compounds. While the energy of the beta particles is higher than those of tritium they are still quite low in energy. For instance the walls of a glass bottle absorb it. Carbon-14 is made by the np reaction of nitrogen-14 with neutrons. It is generated in the atmosphere by the action of cosmic rays on nitrogen. Also a large amount was generated by the neutrons from the air bursts during nuclear weapons testing conducted in the 20th century. The specific activity of atmospheric carbon increased as a result of the nuclear testing but due to the exchange of carbon between the air and other parts of the carbon cycle it has now returned to a very low value. For small amounts of carbon-14, one of the favoured disposal methods is to burn the waste in a medical incinerator, the idea is that by dispersing the radioactivity over a very wide area the threat to any one human is very small.

Phosphorus

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Phosphorus-32 is a short-lived high energy beta emitter, which is used in research in radiotracers. It has a half-life of 14 days. It can be used in DNA research. Phosphorus-32 can be made by the neutron irradiation (np reaction) of sulfur-32 or from phosphorus-31 by neutron capture.

Nickel

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Nickel-63 is a radioisotope of nickel that can be used as an energy source in Radioisotope Piezoelectric Generators. It has a half-life of 100.1 years. It can be created by irradiating nickel-62 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.[3]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Common beta emitters

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Common beta emitters are radioactive isotopes that undergo , a process in which an unstable emits a high-energy (β⁻ decay) or (β⁺ decay) along with an antineutrino or , respectively, to achieve greater stability by converting a to a proton or vice versa. This form of is prevalent in both natural and anthropogenic sources, producing beta particles with energies ranging from a few keV to several MeV, which can ionize matter and pose hazards depending on their . Beta emission differs from by not involving helium nuclei and from gamma decay by directly altering the rather than just releasing excess energy. Among the most notable beta emitters are those commonly encountered in laboratory research, medical applications, and . Tritium (³H), a low-energy β⁻ emitter with a maximum beta energy of 0.018 MeV and a of 12.3 years, is widely used as a tracer in biological and hydrological studies due to its ability to label water molecules. Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) decays via β⁻ emission with a maximum energy of 0.156 MeV and an exceptionally long of 5,730 years, making it essential for of archaeological and geological samples. Sulfur-35 (³⁵S), another low-energy β⁻ emitter (maximum 0.167 MeV, half-life 87.4 days), serves in for labeling proteins and nucleic acids. Phosphorus-32 (³²P) stands out as a high-energy β⁻ emitter (maximum 1.71 MeV, 14.3 days), applied in cancer therapy, , and agricultural research, though it requires careful shielding due to its penetrating power. Strontium-90 (⁹⁰Sr), with a maximum beta energy of 0.546 MeV and of 28.8 years, is a significant environmental contaminant from , mimicking calcium in tissue and thus raising health concerns from fallout and waste. These isotopes are handled with precautions based on their beta energies: low-energy emitters like ³H and ¹⁴C require minimal shielding (e.g., or ), while high-energy ones like ³²P demand thicker acrylic or plexiglass to absorb particles and prevent radiation. In research settings, such as universities, ³H, ¹⁴C, ³⁵S, and ³²P are the most frequently used due to their availability and versatility in tracer studies. Medically, beta emitters like ³²P are employed in targeted therapies for conditions such as , while ⁹⁰Sr is used in for ocular conditions, leveraging their localized energy deposition to destroy diseased cells. Environmentally, beta emitters from nuclear activities, including ⁹⁰Sr and , are monitored for their persistence in ecosystems, with half-lives influencing long-term remediation strategies. Overall, the study and application of common beta emitters balance their utility in science and against risks from internal exposure if ingested or inhaled.

Beta Decay Fundamentals

Mechanism of Beta Decay

Beta decay is a fundamental radioactive process governed by the weak nuclear force, one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. In beta-minus decay, a within the nucleus transforms into a , accompanied by the emission of an (the ) and an electron antineutrino. This occurs in nuclei with an excess of neutrons relative to protons. Conversely, in beta-plus decay, a proton transforms into a , emitting a and an , typically in proton-rich nuclei. These transformations maintain overall stability by adjusting the neutron-to-proton ratio while conserving key quantum numbers, including —electrons and electron antineutrinos carry opposite lepton numbers in beta-minus decay, ensuring a net zero change. At the fundamental quark level, beta decay involves the charged-current interaction mediated by the weak force. In beta-minus decay, one (d) in the , which is composed of one and two down quarks (udd), changes into an (u) by exchanging a virtual with another quark. The (udd) thus becomes a proton (uud), while the W⁻ boson decays into an and an electron antineutrino. For beta-plus decay, an in the proton (uud) transforms into a via a virtual W⁺ boson, which decays into a and an , converting the proton to a (udd). This quark-level process, described within the of , highlights the weak force's role in flavor-changing interactions among . The nuclear transformation in beta decay adheres to strict conservation laws. The mass number A, which represents the total number of nucleons (protons plus neutrons), remains unchanged because the decay involves only an internal rearrangement of a single nucleon without altering the total nucleon count. In beta-minus decay, the atomic number Z increases by 1 due to the neutron-to-proton conversion, shifting the element to the next in the periodic table. In beta-plus decay, Z decreases by 1 as the proton becomes a neutron. These changes preserve baryon number (one for each nucleon) and ensure the process aligns with observed nuclear stability trends. The energy released during beta decay, termed the Q-value, arises from the mass difference between the parent and daughter nuclei and is converted into kinetic energy of the emitted particles according to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence. It is calculated as Q=(mparent−mdaughter−mβ−mν)c2,Q = \left( m_{\text{parent}} - m_{\text{daughter}} - m_{\beta} - m_{\nu} \right) c^2, where mνm_{\nu} (neutrino mass) is negligible, and atomic masses are typically used for convenience, incorporating electron masses appropriately. Because the decay is a three-body process (nucleus recoil is minimal), the available energy Q is shared variably between the beta particle and the neutrino, resulting in a continuous energy spectrum for the beta particle ranging from near zero up to a maximum of approximately Q. This spectrum distinguishes beta decay from two-body processes like alpha decay, which produce discrete energies. The discovery of beta decay traces back to 1899, when identified beta rays—high-speed electrons emitted from salts—as a distinct form of radioactivity, separate from alpha particles. Early observations revealed a puzzling continuous distribution in beta emissions, which violated apparent and . In 1930, proposed the existence of a neutral, nearly (later named the ) to carry away the missing , resolving these inconsistencies and providing a complete description of the decay process.

Types of Beta Decay

Beta decay encompasses several distinct modes, each governed by the weak nuclear interaction and serving to adjust the neutron-to-proton ratio in unstable nuclei. The primary types are beta-minus decay (β⁻), beta-plus decay (β⁺), and (EC), with rarer variants like bound-state beta decay also observed under specific conditions. These processes conserve , , and while transforming the nucleus to achieve greater stability. In beta-minus decay (β⁻), a within the nucleus transforms into a proton, emitting an (β particle) and an electron antineutrino:
n→p+e−+νˉen \rightarrow p + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e
This increases the atomic number by 1 and is characteristic of neutron-rich isotopes, allowing them to move toward the line of stability. A classic example is the decay of to nitrogen-14, widely used in . Beta-plus decay (β⁺), prevalent in proton-rich nuclei, involves a proton decaying into a , , and :
p→n+e++νep \rightarrow n + e^+ + \nu_e
Here, the atomic number decreases by 1. However, this mode requires the decay energy Q to exceed 1.022 MeV, corresponding to twice the rest mass energy (2m_e c²), to account for the creation of the positron-electron pair; otherwise, it is energetically forbidden. , employed in (PET) imaging, exemplifies β⁺ decay to oxygen-18. Electron capture (EC) provides an alternative pathway for proton-rich nuclei, particularly when Q < 1.022 MeV, precluding β⁺ decay. In this process, a nucleus captures an inner-shell orbital , converting a proton to a and emitting a :
p+e−→n+νep + e^- \rightarrow n + \nu_e
The resulting vacancy in the leads to the emission of characteristic X-rays or Auger electrons as outer electrons fill the hole. Beryllium-7 decays via EC to lithium-7, a process relevant to studies. Bound-state beta decay represents a rare mode, observed primarily in fully or highly ionized heavy atoms where atomic orbitals are depleted. Unlike conventional , the emitted is captured directly into a bound atomic state rather than the continuum, effectively resembling but originating from nuclear decay. This process has been experimentally confirmed in rhenium-187 ions stored in particle accelerators. The theoretical framework for these decay modes stems from Enrico Fermi's theory, which models as a first-order perturbation process mediated by the weak force. The decay rate λ is given by λ ∝ |M|^2 f, where |M|^2 is the nuclear matrix element reflecting the overlap of initial and final nuclear states, and f is the factor integrating over the available energies and momenta of the emitted particles. This approach laid the groundwork for understanding beta spectra and branching ratios without delving into details.

Natural Beta Emitters

Carbon-14

Carbon-14 (¹⁴C) is a radioactive isotope of carbon that undergoes β⁻ decay, transforming into stable nitrogen-14 (¹⁴N) by emitting an electron and an antineutrino. This decay process has a half-life of 5,730 years, making it suitable for long-term geochronological applications. As a pure β⁻ emitter, ¹⁴C releases no gamma radiation, with beta particles having a maximum kinetic energy of 156 keV and an average energy of 49 keV. In nature, ¹⁴C is primarily produced in the upper atmosphere through the spallation of nitrogen-14 by cosmic ray neutrons, following the reaction ¹⁴N + n → ¹⁴C + p. This process maintains a steady-state concentration of approximately 1 part per trillion of ¹⁴C relative to total carbon in atmospheric CO₂. Through the biogeochemical , atmospheric ¹⁴C is incorporated into living organisms via and the , achieving equilibrium with environmental levels during an organism's lifetime. Upon death, this uptake ceases, and the decays, enabling for samples up to about 50,000 years old. The age tt is calculated using the decay law: t=1λln⁡(N0N)t = \frac{1}{\lambda} \ln \left( \frac{N_0}{N} \right) where λ=ln⁡2T1/2\lambda = \frac{\ln 2}{T_{1/2}} is the decay constant, T1/2=5,730T_{1/2} = 5{,}730 years is the , N0N_0 is the initial ¹⁴C activity, and NN is the measured activity. Calibration curves account for past atmospheric variations to refine these estimates. Human activities have perturbed natural ¹⁴C levels, notably through atmospheric nuclear weapons tests in the mid-20th century, which introduced "bomb carbon" and roughly doubled atmospheric concentrations by 1963. Additional contributions come from nuclear reactors via of carbon-13. As of the , atmospheric levels of ¹⁴C have largely returned to pre-industrial baselines, though ongoing emissions continue to cause further dilution via the . Natural exposure to ¹⁴C contributes a low effective radiation dose of approximately 0.01 mSv per year to soft tissues, representing a minor fraction of total . Environmentally, its long and potential volatility as CO₂ pose challenges for waste disposal from nuclear facilities, requiring long-term isolation strategies to prevent release into the .

Potassium-40 (⁴⁰K) is a naturally occurring radioactive of with an atomic abundance of 0.011668(8)% in natural samples. It has a of 1.2522(27) × 10⁹ years and decays primarily through two modes: 89.56(7)% via β⁻ emission to the of ⁴⁰Ca with a maximum beta of 1.31091(6) MeV, and 10.34(7)% via to the 1460 keV excited state of ⁴⁰Ar, accompanied by a characteristic of 1.460851(6) MeV. Minor branches include 0.098(25)% to the of ⁴⁰Ar and 0.00103(13)% β⁺ emission. As a , ⁴⁰K originated from in supernovae prior to the formation of the Solar System and remains stable in due to its long . In the environment, ⁴⁰K is ubiquitous, contributing significantly to natural background radiation. Its average activity concentration in soil is approximately 420 Bq/kg (population-weighted), varying regionally from 140 to 850 Bq/kg based on potassium content. Seawater contains about 10 Bq/L of ⁴⁰K, reflecting the ~400 mg/L of total potassium, while it is also present in air via dust and aerosols, and in building materials like concrete and bricks at levels comparable to soil (typically 300–600 Bq/kg). Detection of environmental ⁴⁰K often relies on the 1.46 MeV gamma emission from the electron capture branch using gamma spectroscopy, though the beta decay component is more relevant for internal exposures. Biologically, is an essential element for cellular function, including signaling and , and ⁴⁰K is ingested daily through diet, maintaining an equilibrium concentration of ~60 Bq/kg in the via intake and excretion. Foods rich in , such as bananas and potatoes, contribute notably, with the global average annual effective dose from internal ⁴⁰K estimated at 0.17 mSv, accounting for about 10% of total natural . This dose arises primarily from beta emissions within tissues, as the distributes uniformly following total body .

Fission Product Beta Emitters

Strontium-90

Strontium-90 is a radioactive of strontium produced primarily through , with a of 28.80 years. It undergoes pure β⁻ decay, emitting an with a maximum of 0.546 MeV and transforming into , which has a short of 2.67 days and further decays via β⁻ emission to stable zirconium-90 with a maximum beta of 2.28 MeV. Due to the rapid decay of yttrium-90, the effective of strontium-90 in environmental and biological systems is approximately 29 years, making it a long-lived contributor to . In nuclear reactors and weapons, strontium-90 is generated as a fission product with a cumulative yield of about 5.73% per fission in the thermal neutron-induced fission of uranium-235, positioning it as a major component of spent nuclear fuel, reactor waste, and fallout from nuclear explosions or accidents. This yield contributes to its prominence in global radioactive inventories, where it persists in soils, water, and biota for decades. Significant releases occurred during the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident, which dispersed approximately 8 PBq of strontium-90 across Europe, and the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi disaster, which released about 0.14 PBq into the environment, leading to widespread soil and ocean contamination. Following atmospheric nuclear tests in the mid-20th century, strontium-90 levels in milk were routinely monitored worldwide as an indicator of fallout exposure, with concentrations peaking in the 1960s due to its incorporation into dairy products via contaminated pastures. Chemically, strontium-90 behaves similarly to calcium due to their shared group 2 position in the periodic table, allowing it to accumulate preferentially in bones and teeth as a "bone-seeker" after or . In the , it bioaccumulates in products and human tissues, often quantified using the strontium unit (SU), defined as picocuries of strontium-90 per gram of calcium (pCi Sr-90/g Ca), which highlights its potential for long-term radiological exposure through diet. This affinity for calcium pathways exacerbates environmental impacts, as strontium-90 from fallout or waste can enter and agricultural systems, posing risks to human health via chronic bone irradiation. Beyond environmental concerns, has practical applications in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), where its decay heat powers remote devices; the deployed numerous such units in lighthouses and navigation beacons using (SrTiO₃) ceramic fuel for its thermal stability. Similar RTGs have been explored for space missions due to the isotope's reliable energy output over decades. In , the related isotope strontium-89 is used as Sr-89 injection to palliate from metastatic cancers by targeting skeletal lesions with beta radiation.

Cesium-137

Cesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) is a radioactive produced primarily through , with a of 30.17 years. It undergoes β⁻ decay via two main branches: the predominant one (94.6%) emitting electrons with a maximum of 0.512 MeV to the metastable of barium-137 (¹³⁷mBa), and a minor branch (5.4%) with a maximum of 1.174 MeV to the of ¹³⁷Ba, which subsequently decays by emitting a characteristic at 0.662 MeV from the metastable state. This dual emission of beta particles and penetrating gamma radiation distinguishes ¹³⁷Cs from pure beta emitters, as the gamma component allows for external detection and contributes significantly to dose. In nuclear reactors, ¹³⁷Cs forms as a fission product of , with a cumulative fission yield of approximately 6.2%. This yield makes it a prominent component in and atmospheric fallout from and reactor accidents. Due to its chemical similarity to , ¹³⁷Cs exhibits high in , facilitating its mobility in aquatic environments, though it readily adsorbs onto clay minerals in soils, limiting long-term leaching. Global deposition from 1960s atmospheric nuclear tests resulted in widespread soil inventories, typically ranging from 1,000 to 4,000 Bq/m² in the , with elevated levels in sediments serving as tracers for and processes. Exposure to ¹³⁷Cs poses health risks primarily through its gamma radiation, which can irradiate the whole body externally or internally if ingested or inhaled, increasing cancer risk via DNA damage. Internally, beta emissions cause localized tissue damage, but the penetrating gamma rays dominate systemic effects. In medical applications, sealed ¹³⁷Cs sources are used for calibrating radiation detection equipment due to their stable gamma emission and in low-dose-rate brachytherapy for treating gynecological cancers. ¹³⁷Cs is routinely monitored using , which identifies its signature 0.662 MeV peak for environmental and health surveillance. Notable legacies include the 1957 Windscale reactor fire in the UK, which released an estimated 90–350 TBq of ¹³⁷Cs into the atmosphere, contaminating milk and soils across , and the 1987 in , where a stolen ¹³⁷Cs source exposed over 100 people to severe , resulting in four deaths from .

Iodine-131

Iodine-131 (¹³¹I) is a radioactive of iodine that undergoes β⁻ decay to xenon-131 (¹³¹Xe), with a physical of 8.02 days. This short half-life contributes to its rapid environmental decay, but it emits beta particles with a maximum energy of 0.606 MeV and associated gamma rays, including a prominent 0.364 MeV , as part of a complex involving multiple excited states of xenon-131. The beta emissions have a maximum range of approximately 2-3 mm in tissue, making ¹³¹I suitable for targeted internal radiotherapy, while the gamma emissions enable external detection for imaging purposes. ¹³¹I is primarily produced as a fission product in nuclear reactors, with a cumulative fission yield of approximately 2.9% from the thermal neutron-induced fission of (²³⁵U). It also arises from the fission of and isotopes in reactor , accumulating during operation until released or decaying. In nuclear accidents, its volatility allows it to form gaseous or forms that can disperse widely through the atmosphere. Due to iodine's essential role in thyroid hormone synthesis, ¹³¹I is rapidly taken up by the gland following or , concentrating there and delivering a high localized dose. This property makes it invaluable in for treating , where oral doses of ¹³¹I ablate overactive tissue, achieving remission in 80-90% of cases after a single administration. It is also used for imaging via , where diagnostic doses (typically 0.37-7.4 MBq) visualize gland function and detect metastases in patients. Post-treatment, patients are monitored for , which often develops due to the therapy's efficacy. In accidental releases, such as the 1986 , large quantities of ¹³¹I were volatilized and carried by wind, contaminating milk and food chains across and leading to elevated thyroid doses in exposed populations. This resulted in a significant increase in thyroid cancers among children, with over 6,000 cases attributed to ¹³¹I exposure in , , and by the early 2000s, particularly affecting those under 15 years old at the time of the accident. The committed thyroid dose from ¹³¹I or is calculated using biokinetic models, estimating 0.1-1 Sv per GBq absorbed, depending on age and exposure route, with children receiving higher doses due to greater . Protective measures include stable (KI) administration, which saturates the and blocks ¹³¹I uptake by over 90% if given within hours of exposure, reducing cancer risk in emergencies.

Neutron Activation Product Beta Emitters

Tritium

, or hydrogen-3 (³H), is a radioactive that undergoes pure β⁻ decay to stable (³He), emitting an with no accompanying gamma radiation. Its physical is 12.32 years, during which it decays with a maximum beta of 18.6 keV and an average of 5.7 keV. Due to this low , the beta particles have very limited penetration, traveling only about 6 mm in air and being unable to penetrate the outer layer of dead skin, rendering external exposure negligible for skin dose while posing risks primarily through internal pathways such as or . Tritium is produced artificially through , primarily via the reaction of lithium-6 with neutrons: 6Li+n→3H+4He^6\mathrm{Li} + n \rightarrow ^3\mathrm{H} + ^4\mathrm{He}, which is exploited in nuclear reactors and proposed fusion breeding blankets. It can also form from by , though this is less common. Naturally, trace amounts arise from interactions with atmospheric and oxygen, contributing to low-level environmental background. Tritium exists in several chemical forms, including elemental gaseous tritium (HT) and (HTO), with HTO being the most prevalent and hazardous due to its to ordinary , allowing it to readily enter biological systems and participate in the hydrological cycle. In applications, tritium serves as a key fuel component in reactions, particularly in deuterium-tritium (D-T) systems that produce high-energy neutrons for energy generation. It is also used in low-energy devices such as self-luminous signs and exit markers, where gas is sealed in phosphor-coated tubes to produce steady without external power, and in radioluminescent paints for similar long-term illumination needs. Additionally, acts as a tracer in hydrological studies to track movement in , rivers, and atmospheric cycles due to its conservative behavior akin to molecules. Regarding safety, has a biological half-life of approximately 10 days in humans, primarily eliminated through , which informs dose assessments and exposure controls. Releases from nuclear reactors are closely monitored, with liquid effluents typically containing concentrations well below regulatory limits, such as the U.S. EPA's standard of 20,000 pCi/L (0.02 μCi/L), ensuring minimal environmental and public health impacts.

Phosphorus-32

(³²P) is a radioactive of that undergoes pure β⁻ decay to stable sulfur-32 (³²S), with a of 14.26 days. The decay emits beta particles with a maximum of 1.711 MeV and an average of 0.695 MeV, resulting in a maximum of approximately 8 mm in . This high-energy beta emission makes ³²P suitable for applications requiring moderate tissue penetration, while the absence of gamma rays simplifies detection and handling compared to mixed emitters. Production of ³²P occurs primarily through in nuclear reactors, via the ³²S(n,p)³²P reaction on elemental targets or the ³¹P(n,γ)³²P reaction on phosphorus-31-enriched material. The former method yields higher but requires fast fluxes, whereas the latter uses neutrons and is more common for biomedical-grade material. Both processes are carried out in research reactors, with post-irradiation chemical separation to isolate carrier-free ³²P as . In biomedical research, ³²P is widely used for labeling DNA and RNA in molecular biology studies, enabling autoradiography and sequencing techniques due to its incorporation into phosphate backbones. Therapeutically, it treats conditions like polycythemia vera by intravenous administration as chromic phosphate, where beta particles target proliferating bone marrow cells, achieving remission in many patients. Industrially, ³²P serves as a beta source in thickness gauges for monitoring material layers, such as in paper or metal production, leveraging its beta attenuation for non-destructive measurement. Handling ³²P requires low-atomic-number shielding, such as 3/8-inch plexiglass, to absorb beta particles while minimizing X-ray production from high-energy interactions. is used secondarily outside plexiglass to attenuate any generated X-rays. Upon decay, ³²P produces no radioactive daughter products, as ³²S is stable, and its short limits environmental persistence, resulting in low long-term release risks from controlled disposals.

Nickel-63

Nickel-63 (⁶³Ni) is a radioactive of nickel that undergoes pure β⁻ decay to copper-63 (⁶³Cu), emitting electrons with a maximum of 66.9 keV and an of 17 keV. Its is 100.1 years, making it a long-lived beta emitter suitable for applications requiring sustained low-level over decades. The low-energy betas have a maximum range of about 5 cm in air and less than 0.01 cm in tissue, rendering external negligible without direct skin contact. Production of nickel-63 occurs primarily through of enriched targets via the reaction 62Ni(n,γ)63Ni^{62}\text{Ni}(n,\gamma)^{63}\text{Ni}, typically in high-flux reactors like the (HFIR). Enriched targets (at least 96% ⁶²Ni) ensure high isotopic purity, with post-irradiation processing to remove impurities, yielding specific activities exceeding 15 curies per gram. This method avoids fission byproducts, producing a clean source for specialized uses. Key applications of nickel-63 include betavoltaic batteries and radioisotope piezoelectric generators (RPEGs) for powering low-energy devices in remote or long-term scenarios, such as space missions and autonomous sensors. In betavoltaics, the isotope is encapsulated within semiconductors like or , where beta particles generate electron-hole pairs for direct electricity conversion, achieving efficiencies over 60% in advanced designs. RPEGs utilize the betas to induce mechanical vibrations in piezoelectric materials, converting to electrical output for microsystems. Additionally, nickel-63 serves as the ionization source in electron capture detectors (ECDs) for , enhancing sensitivity to electronegative compounds like pesticides and explosives. The long and absence of gamma emissions provide significant advantages for these energy conversion technologies, enabling compact, maintenance-free operation without heavy shielding. Compared to , -63 offers higher energy per decay while maintaining similarly low energies, making it preferable for solid-state betavoltaics. considerations emphasize minimal external hazard due to the soft , but internal exposure poses risks if inhaled or ingested as metallic , potentially causing lung damage or carcinogenicity; thus, handling requires contamination monitoring via wipe tests and .

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