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Common metre
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Common metre or common measure[1]—abbreviated as C. M. or CM—is a poetic metre consisting of four lines that alternate between iambic tetrameter (four metrical feet per line) and iambic trimeter (three metrical feet per line), with each foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. The metre is denoted by the syllable count of each line, i.e. 8.6.8.6, 86.86, or 86 86, depending on style, or by its shorthand abbreviation "CM".
Common metre has been used for ballads such as "Tam Lin", hymns such as "Amazing Grace", and Christmas carols such as "O Little Town of Bethlehem". A consequence of this commonality is that lyrics of one song can be sung to the tune of another; for example, "Advance Australia Fair", "House of the Rising Sun", "Pokémon Theme" and "Amazing Grace" can have their lyrics set to the tune of any of the others. Historically, lyrics were not always wedded to tunes and would therefore be sung to any fitting melody; "Amazing Grace", for instance, was not set to the tune "New Britain" (with which it is most commonly associated today) until fifty-six years after its initial publication in 1779.
Variants
[edit]Common metre is related to other poetic forms.
Ballad metre
[edit]Like common metre, ballad metre comprises couplets of tetrameter (four feet) and trimeter (three feet). However, the feet need not be iambs (with one unstressed and one stressed syllable): the number of unstressed syllables is variable.[2] Ballad metre is "less regular and more conversational"[2] than common metre.
In each stanza, ballad form typically needs to rhyme only the second lines of the couplets, not the first, giving a rhyme scheme of ABCB, while common metre typically rhymes both the first lines and the second lines, ABAB.[citation needed] A ballad in groups of four lines with a rhyme scheme of ABCB is known as the ballad stanza.
He does not rise in piteous haste
To put on convict-clothes,
While some coarse-mouthed Doctor gloats, and notes
Each new and nerve-twitched pose,
Fingering a watch whose little ticks
Are like horrible hammer-blows.
Fourteener
[edit]The fourteener is a metrical line of 14 syllables (usually seven iambic feet).[3]
Fourteeners typically occur in couplets. Fourteener couplets broken into quatrains (four-line stanzas) are equivalent to quatrains in common metre or ballad metre:[3] instead of alternating lines of tetrameter and trimeter, a fourteener joins the tetrameter and trimeter lines to give seven feet per line.[4]
The fourteener gives the poet greater flexibility than common metre, in that its long lines invite the use of variably placed caesuras and spondees to achieve metrical variety, in place of a fixed pattern of iambs and line breaks.[citation needed]
Whose sense in so evil consort, their stepdame Nature lays,
That ravishing delight in them most sweet tunes do not raise;
Or if they do delight therein, yet are so cloyed with wit,
As with sententious lips to set a title vain on it:
O let them hear these sacred tunes, and learn in wonder’s schools,
To be (in things past bounds of wit) fools, if they be not fools.
— Philip Sidney, from Astrophel and Stella (Seventh Song)
Common-metre double and particular
[edit]Another common adaptation of the common metre is the common-metre double, which as the name suggests, is the common metre repeated twice in each stanza, or 8.6.8.6.8.6.8.6. Traditionally the rhyming scheme should also be double the common metre and be ABABCDCD, but it often uses the ballad metre style, resulting in XAXAXBXB. Examples of this variant are "America the Beautiful" and "It Came Upon the Midnight Clear". Likewise related is the common particular metre, 8.8.6.8.8.6., as in the tune Magdalen College, composed in 1774 by William Hayes, which has been used with the hymn "We Sing of God, the Mighty Source", by Christopher Smart.[5]
Examples
[edit] | This section may contain unverified or indiscriminate information in embedded lists. (February 2020) |
Common metre is often used in hymns, like this one by John Newton.
Amazing Grace, how sweet the sound,
That saved a wretch like me!
I once was lost, but now am found,
Was blind, but now I see.
— from John Newton's "Amazing Grace"
William Wordsworth's "Lucy Poems" are also in common metre.
A slumber did my spirit seal;
I had no human fears:
She seemed a thing that could not feel
The touch of earthly years.
— from William Wordsworth's "A slumber did my spirit seal"
Many of the poems of Emily Dickinson use ballad metre.
Because I could not stop for Death,
He kindly stopped for me;
The Carriage held but just Ourselves
And Immortality.
— from Emily Dickinson's poem #712
Another American poem in ballad metre is Ernest Thayer's "Casey at the Bat":
The outlook wasn't brilliant for
The Mudville Nine that day;
The score stood four to two, with but
One inning more to play.
A modern example of ballad metre is the theme song to Gilligan's Island, infamously making it possible to sing any other ballad to that tune. The first two lines actually contain anapaests in place of iambs. This is an example of a ballad metre which is metrically less strict than common metre.
Just sit right back and you'll hear a tale,
a tale of a fateful trip.
That started from this tropic port,
aboard this tiny ship.
Another example is the folk song "House of the Rising Sun".
There is a house in New Orleans,
They call the rising sun.
And it's been the ruin of many a poor girl,
And God, I know I'm one.
"Gascoigns Good Night", by George Gascoigne, employs fourteeners.
The stretching arms, the yawning breath, which I to bedward use,
Are patterns of the pangs of death, when life will me refuse:
And of my bed each sundry part in shadows doth resemble,
The sundry shapes of death, whose dart shall make my flesh to tremble.
— from George Gascoigne's "Gascoigns Good Night"
"America the Beautiful" by Katharine Lee Bates employs the common metre double, using a standard CM rhyme scheme for the first iteration, and a ballad metre scheme for the second.
O beautiful for spacious skies,
For amber waves of grain,
For purple mountain majesties
Above the fruited plain!
America! America!
God shed his grace on thee
And crown thy good with brotherhood
From sea to shining sea!
Likewise "Advance Australia Fair" by Peter Dodds McCormick, Australia's national anthem:
Australians all let us rejoice,
For we are one and free;
We've golden soil and wealth for toil;
Our home is girt by sea;
Our land abounds in nature's gifts
Of beauty rich and rare;
In hist'ry's page, let ev'ry stage
Advance Australia Fair.
In joyful strains then let us sing,
Advance Australia Fair.
The first English dubbed Pokémon theme:
I want to be the very best,
Like no one ever was.
To catch them is my real test,
To train them is my cause.
I will travel across the land,
Searching far and wide.
Teach Pokémon to understand,
The power that's inside.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Blackstone, Bernard., "Practical English Prosody: A Handbook for Students", London: Longmans, 1965. 97-8
- ^ a b "Common metre". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
- ^ a b "Glossary of Poetic Terms: Fourteener". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
- ^ Kinzie, Mary (1999). A Poet's Guide to Poetry. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 121–2, 414–5.
- ^ The Hymnal of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, 1940, New York: Church Pension Fund, Hymn 314.
Common metre
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Common metre, also known as common meter or hymn meter, is a traditional form of poetic meter in English verse characterized by quatrains with alternating lines of iambic tetrameter (eight syllables, four iambs) and iambic trimeter (six syllables, three iambs), typically following an ABAB or ABCB rhyme scheme.[1][2]
This structure creates a rhythmic, singsong quality that mimics natural speech while providing a memorable and musical flow, making it ideal for oral traditions and communal singing.[1][2]
Originating in English ballad and folk poetry, common metre has been used for centuries, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries for Christian hymns, where its regularity suited congregational participation.[1][2]
It gained prominence in Romantic literature, with poets like William Wordsworth and Emily Dickinson employing it for its simplicity and emotional resonance, as seen in Wordsworth's "A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal" and Dickinson's numerous untitled works.[1][2]
Beyond poetry, the form appears in nursery rhymes, carols like "O Little Town of Bethlehem," and even modern media such as television theme songs, demonstrating its enduring versatility and accessibility.[1][2]
He kindly stopped for me –
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
And Immortality.[34] Dickinson's use of slant rhymes, such as "me" with "Immortality," disrupts the expected perfect harmony of traditional common metre, infusing the form with tension that underscores the unsettling yet serene confrontation with mortality. This metrical execution enhances the theme of death as an unhurried companion, lending a folk-like universality to the personal introspection and emphasizing simplicity amid existential depth.[34] Robert Burns adapted common metre—often in its ballad stanza variant with ABCB rhyme scheme—to infuse his Scottish works with vernacular authenticity and emotional directness. His song "A Red, Red Rose" (1794) utilizes the form to celebrate enduring love through vivid, rustic imagery, as seen in the first stanza: O my Luve is like a red, red rose
That’s newly sprung in June;
O my Luve is like the melody
That’s sweetly played in tune.[35] The alternating tetrameter and trimeter lines evoke the lilt of oral tradition, reinforcing the poem's themes of timeless affection and natural simplicity while adapting the metre to Scots dialect for cultural resonance. Burns' execution grounds abstract emotions in everyday balladry, making profound sentiments accessible and enhancing the work's folkloric appeal.[35] In 20th-century literature, A. E. Housman revived common metre to convey poignant reflections on loss and transience, aligning the form's ballad simplicity with modern elegiac tones. His poem "Into my heart an air that kills" (1896) deploys the metre in two quatrains to evoke nostalgic yearning for a lost homeland, symbolizing irretrievable youth and mortality: Into my heart an air that kills
From yon far country blows:
What are those blue remembered hills,
What spires, what farms are those? That is the land of lost content,
I see it shining plain,
The happy highways where I went
And cannot come again. The steady iambic rhythm and ABAB rhyme scheme create a haunting, wind-like flow that amplifies the theme of inescapable separation, using the metre's hymn origins to impart a quiet inevitability to themes of mortality and the simplicity of faded memories. Housman's precise adherence to the form heightens the emotional restraint, transforming personal exile into universal lament.
Definition and Characteristics
Syllable and Stress Patterns
Common metre, also known as common measure, consists of quatrains with alternating lines of eight and six syllables, following the pattern 8.6.8.6. This structure provides a rhythmic balance suitable for both recitation and song, with the longer lines offering expansiveness and the shorter ones creating a sense of resolution. The metre is fundamentally iambic, built on iambic feet where each foot comprises an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one (da-DUM). In the eight-syllable lines, known as iambic tetrameter, there are four such feet, while the six-syllable lines, or iambic trimeter, contain three feet. This iambic progression establishes a natural, speech-like cadence that mimics English prosody, enhancing memorability and musicality. For instance, a typical line in tetrameter might scan as: "The Lord is my shepHERD, I shall not WANT" (with stresses capitalized), and in trimeter: "he MAKES me DOWN to LIE." In practice, common metre allows for some metrical variations to accommodate poetic expression, such as catalexis (omission of the final unstressed syllable in a line, common in trimeter for a stronger ending) or anacrusis (an initial unstressed syllable before the regular iambic pattern). These substitutions maintain the overall iambic character without disrupting the metre's flow, as noted in analyses of traditional hymn texts. For contrast, this differs from related forms like short metre (6.6.8.6), which inverts the line order to begin with trimeter lines, altering the stanza's dynamic slightly while retaining iambic foundations.Rhyme and Structural Features
Common metre quatrains typically follow an ABAB or ABCB rhyme scheme, where the first and third lines rhyme with each other, and the second and fourth lines rhyme with each other, or alternatively, only the second and fourth lines rhyme.[1][2] This alternating pattern creates a balanced, interlocking structure that reinforces the metre's rhythmic flow. While not strictly required, rhyme is nearly universal in common metre poetry, contributing to its memorability and musicality.[1] The stanza in common metre functions as a self-contained unit of four lines, with the 8-6-8-6 syllable alternation providing a compact, symmetrical form ideal for repetition in songs and hymns.[3] This quatrain structure allows each stanza to stand alone narratively or thematically, facilitating easy extension into longer works without disrupting the overall cadence.[4] The integration of rhyme and metre occurs through the alignment of end rhymes with the stressed syllables that conclude each line, as the iambic tetrameter and trimeter patterns naturally place emphasis on the final syllable.[5] This alignment amplifies the auditory impact of the rhymes, creating a sense of resolution that complements the iambic stress pattern briefly referenced in the metre's foundational characteristics.[6] In prosody texts and hymnals, common metre is formally notated as CM, a shorthand that encapsulates its standard 8.6.8.6 structure and distinguishes it from other metrical forms.[7][8]Historical Origins and Evolution
Early English Poetry Roots
Common metre, also known as ballad metre, first emerged in late 12th-century English poetry as an accentual-syllabic form adapted from Latin hymn traditions to the natural stress patterns of Middle English, where emphasis typically fell on root syllables of content words rather than fixed positions. This innovation is evident in the Ormulum (c. 1180), a biblical paraphrase by the monk Orm, which employed septenary lines—seven-beat iambic patterns often divided into hemistichs of four and three stresses—foreshadowing the alternating tetrameter-trimeter structure of common metre.[9][10] By the 13th century, this new metrical system had largely supplanted the older alliterative verse tradition, which relied on stress-based alliteration across four principal stresses per line without strict syllable counts, as seen in works like Beowulf. The shift reflected broader linguistic changes in Middle English, where French loanwords introduced variable stresses but iambic rhythms (unstressed-stressed pairs) aligned with spoken cadences, enabling more predictable scansion in narrative verse. Geoffrey Chaucer's adoption of iambic forms in the late 14th century, particularly the decasyllabic lines of The Canterbury Tales (c. 1387–1400), further refined these patterns, establishing iambic tetrameter and trimeter as viable alternatives to pentameter for shorter, folk-oriented compositions.[9][11] In 14th- to 16th-century ballads and folk songs, common metre solidified through the evolution of septenary lines into quatrains of octosyllabic tetrameter alternating with hexasyllabic trimeter, often in ABCB or ABAB rhyme schemes, to suit oral performance and musical accompaniment. Anonymous narrative ballads, such as those preserved in the Percy Folio manuscript (compiled c. 1640–1660 from earlier sources), exemplify this form; for instance, "Adam Bell" features the characteristic 8-6-8-6 syllable pattern with iambic stresses, marking some of the earliest documented instances of the metre in printed compilations. This transition from undivided septenaries to broken quatrains enhanced rhythmic variety while maintaining simplicity for communal recitation.[12]Rise in Hymnody and Ballads
The Bay Psalm Book, published in 1640 by Puritan leaders in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, served as an early precursor to the widespread use of common metre in American religious texts, translating the Psalms into English verse suitable for congregational singing and employing common metre (8.6.8.6) alongside long and short metres to facilitate pairing with existing tunes.[13] The advent of printing presses in the colonies enabled the inclusion of musical notation in later editions, such as the ninth edition of 1698, which appended 13 common tunes primarily in common metre, making hymnals more accessible and promoting standardized singing practices among Protestant communities.[13] This technological advancement laid the groundwork for the metre's broader adoption in religious music by allowing for the mass production and distribution of metrical psalters that emphasized fidelity to biblical texts while adapting them to singable forms.[13] In the early 18th century, common metre gained prominence in Protestant hymnody through the innovations of Isaac Watts (1674–1748), often regarded as the father of English hymnody, who adapted biblical Psalms into original compositions using common metre to create more expressive and congregational-friendly lyrics, as seen in works like "O God, Our Help in Ages Past" (1719).[14] Charles Wesley (1707–1788), collaborating with his brother John in the Methodist movement, further standardized the metre around 1700–1750 by composing thousands of hymns in common metre and other forms, emphasizing personal devotion and evangelical themes that resonated with lay singers.[14] Their efforts shifted hymnody from rigid psalm paraphrases to free verse, embedding common metre as a versatile structure in Protestant worship and enabling its integration into emerging denominational traditions.[14] The metre's adoption in Methodist and Baptist traditions during this period facilitated widespread congregational singing, as its simple iambic structure (alternating 8- and 6-syllable lines) allowed untrained voices to participate easily in revivals and services, with hymnals like those compiled by the Wesleys prioritizing common metre for its compatibility with folk-derived tunes.[15] In these denominations, common metre hymns became central to communal worship, supporting the evangelical emphasis on direct, heartfelt expression and spreading through printed collections that accounted for a significant portion of texts in early 19th-century repositories.[15] During the First Great Awakening of the 1730s–1740s, common metre expanded into American folk ballads and hymnody, as Baptist and Methodist preachers adapted English hymns to local folk tunes, blending religious narratives with vernacular ballad styles to reach diverse audiences in colonial revivals.[16] This period marked a surge in its use for evangelistic purposes, with flexible texts in common metre set to simple, archaic-sounding melodies that encouraged spontaneous participation, including among frontier communities where hymn-singing often accompanied communal gatherings.[16] The revival's emphasis on emotional conversion further popularized the metre in American sacred folk traditions, distinguishing it from stricter European psalmody.[16]Key Variants
Ballad Metre
Ballad metre serves as a flexible variant of common metre, maintaining the core alternating pattern of eight-syllable and six-syllable lines in iambic rhythm while permitting deviations that enhance its suitability for narrative poetry in oral traditions.[17] This looseness distinguishes it from stricter forms, prioritizing the singer's improvisation and the natural cadence of storytelling over rigid syllabic adherence.[18] The pattern follows an 8.6.8.6 structure in its ideal form, with iambic tetrameter in the odd lines and trimeter in the even lines, but frequent substitutions of 7- or 9-syllable lines occur to support oral flow and melodic adaptation.[18] These variations arise from options in the final foot, such as monosyllabic substitutions that either shorten or extend lines, allowing performers to adjust phrasing for emphasis or rhythm without disrupting the overall stanzaic framework.[18] In practice, this flexibility facilitates singer improvisation, enabling real-time modifications to lyrics or timing during live renditions.[19] Ballad metre is commonly employed in British folk ballads, including those preserved in the Child Ballads collection, where it underpins dramatic narratives passed down through generations.[17] It also thrives in Appalachian ballads, which evolved from British sources but incorporate local adaptations, sustaining traditions of communal performance and variant creation in oral communities.[19] A key distinction from strict common metre lies in its higher tolerance for hypercatalexis, the addition of extra syllables beyond the expected metrical close, which introduces a conversational irregularity suited to sung delivery.[17] This feature, evident in early printed broadsides and folk manuscripts, reflects the metre's Teutonic stress-based origins and aids memorization in unaccompanied singing.[17] Examples from the Child Ballads vividly illustrate this metrical variation; in "Sir Patrick Spens" (Child #58), the line "Lang, lang may their ladies sit" is classified as type 4, showcasing metrical variation that heightens emotional resonance in the oral tradition.[18] Similarly, other stanzas in the ballad alternate between standard and variant lengths, such as seven-syllable lines (type 3), to mirror the ebb and flow of the narrative's tragic momentum.[18]Fourteener Couplets
Fourteener couplets represent a variant of common metre structured as pairs of iambic heptameter lines, with each line comprising 14 syllables arranged in seven iambic feet.[20] These couplets typically employ an AA rhyme scheme, where the end words of the two lines rhyme, facilitating a rhythmic flow suitable for extended poetic discourse.[20] In Elizabethan poetry, fourteener couplets gained prominence for crafting epic narratives, as exemplified in Thomas Phaer's translation of Virgil's Aeneid, where the form supported expansive storytelling through its length and momentum.[20] The metre's accentual pattern, often featuring four strong stresses per line, lent it a robust, song-like quality akin to ballad traditions.[20] Historically, fourteeners emerged as standalone couplets in the mid-16th century during the Tudor period but underwent a shift toward integration with common metre quatrains, achieved by inserting a caesura after the eighth syllable to divide each line into an 8-syllable tetrameter followed by a 6-syllable trimeter half.[20] This adaptation, which prospered around 1560 before declining in favor of iambic pentameter, allowed two fourteeners to effectively form a single common metre stanza.[20] Prosodically, fourteener couplets are notated as 14.14 to indicate the syllable count per line, or as reduced tetrameter-trimeter halves (4-3 stresses) when emphasizing the internal division that evokes common metre's alternating pattern.[17]Extended Forms
Common metre double (CMD), denoted as 8.6.8.6.8.6.8.6, extends the standard common metre quatrain by repeating its alternating iambic tetrameter and trimeter pattern to form an eight-line stanza, typically with an ABABCDDC or similar rhyme scheme.[21] This form maintains the rhythmic flow of the original while providing additional space for elaboration, making it suitable for extended hymns that develop theological narratives or praises without disrupting the metrical consistency.[22] In 19th-century hymnody, CMD appeared frequently in anthologies to accommodate longer verses in psalm paraphrases and devotional odes, allowing composers to sustain musical phrasing across broader lyrical content.[23] A representative example is Katharine Lee Bates's "America the Beautiful" (1893), where the structure supports patriotic imagery across eight lines per stanza:O beautiful for spacious skies,Another instance from 19th-century collections is Charles Wesley's "Jehovah, God the Father, bless" (originally 1767, widely reprinted in the 1800s), which uses CMD to invoke Trinitarian blessings in an expansive stanza.[24] Common metre particular, abbreviated as C.P.M. and structured as 8.8.6.8.8.6, represents a six-line variant that doubles the tetrameter lines of common metre while retaining the trimeter for the third and sixth lines, often employing an AABCCB rhyme scheme to create a more compact yet elongated form.[25] This adjustment facilitates subtle rhyme variations and rhythmic balance in hymns, enabling the integration of repetitive refrains or thematic contrasts essential for narrative progression in psalms and odes.[26] Prevalent in 19th-century sacred music compilations, it supported the evolution of stanzaic forms that preserved iambic cadence amid growing demands for expressive depth in worship texts.[27] An illustrative case from the Plymouth Collection (1855) is Henry Ward Beecher's "Lord, in Thy Presence Dread and Sweet," which employs the meter to blend awe and intimacy:
For amber waves of grain,
For purple mountain majesties
Above the fruited plain!
America! America!
God shed His grace on thee
And crown thy good with brotherhood
From sea to shining sea
Lord, in Thy presence dread and sweet,This form's utility in sustaining rhythmic continuity while accommodating varied content made it a staple in anthologies like Joshua Leavitt's The Christian Lyre (1830), where it aided the adaptation of scriptural narratives into singable poetry.[29]
Shall lowly hearts their homage meet;
Like Mary at Thy feet we fall,
We listen to Thy gracious call;
Our souls, subdued by love's control,
Would yield to Thee their fullest soul.[28]
Applications in Literature and Music
Poetic Usage
Common metre, characterized by its alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and trimeter, has been employed by Romantic poets to convey accessible storytelling and emotional depth in secular verse. William Wordsworth, a key figure in the Romantic movement, frequently utilized this form to evoke simplicity and natural speech rhythms, making complex themes relatable to a broad audience. In his poem "A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal," the metre's steady iambic pulse underscores the speaker's quiet grief and the inexorable passage of time, with the shorter trimeter lines providing a poignant contraction that mirrors the theme of loss. This approach aligned with Wordsworth's advocacy for poetry drawn from "the real language of men," as outlined in his preface to Lyrical Ballads, where common metre facilitated an unadorned narrative style. The form's narrative drive is particularly evident in ballads, where the alternating line lengths create a rhythmic ebb and flow that builds tension and propels the story forward. The longer tetrameter lines often carry descriptive or dialogic elements, establishing scene or character, while the trimeter lines deliver climactic actions or revelations, heightening dramatic intensity. This structural alternation fosters a sense of oral tradition, mimicking the cadences of spoken tales and encouraging memorization, as seen in traditional English ballads adapted into literary forms. Scholars note that this propulsion arises from the metre's inherent balance, where the iambic stress pattern (unstressed-stressed syllables) generates forward momentum without overwhelming the listener or reader. In the 20th century, common metre experienced a revival in folk poetry and literary adaptations, valued for its simplicity amid modernist experimentation. During the folk revival movement of the 1950s and 1960s, poets and songwriters like Woody Guthrie drew on the form's unpretentious structure to craft verses that captured everyday struggles and social commentary, prioritizing rhythmic clarity over ornate language. This adaptation preserved the metre's versatility for narrative poetry, allowing it to bridge traditional balladry with contemporary expression. The enduring stylistic advantages of common metre—its memorability through predictable patterns and rhythmic propulsion that sustains reader engagement—have made it a staple in verse forms emphasizing storytelling over abstraction.Hymnal and Musical Adaptations
Common metre, denoted as 8.6.8.6, exhibits strong compatibility with a wide array of hymn tunes due to its alternating syllable structure, which aligns seamlessly with melodic phrasings in sacred music. This metre's iambic tetrameter and trimeter lines provide a rhythmic foundation that fits established melodies such as the tune "New Britain" associated with "Amazing Grace," allowing texts in common metre to be interchanged with other tunes sharing the same syllabic pattern.[30] Such versatility facilitated its widespread adoption in Protestant hymnody, where composers crafted tunes specifically to accommodate this metre's balanced flow.[14] In the 19th and 20th centuries, common metre played a pivotal role in shape-note singing traditions, particularly within American folk hymnody, where it appeared extensively in tunebooks like The Sacred Harp (1844 onward). Shape-note systems, using fa-so-la-mi notation to simplify sight-singing, featured numerous common metre compositions, enabling community gatherings in hollow-square formations for a cappella performances that emphasized harmonic richness and participatory worship.[31] This metre also influenced gospel music traditions, especially in Southern U.S. contexts, where it supported lining-out practices and evangelical songs by hymnists like Isaac Watts, blending European poetic forms with emerging African American rhythmic elements to foster expressive, congregational singing.[15][32] The iambic rhythm of common metre—unstressed-stressed syllables repeating in tetrameter (four feet) and trimeter (three feet)—harmonically aligns with 4/4 time signatures prevalent in hymn settings, where each iambic foot typically occupies two quarter-note beats, creating a natural propulsion that underscores textual emphasis on downbeats one and three. This alignment enhances singability, as the metre's predictable pulse supports four-part harmony without complex syncopation, a feature evident in both shape-note and standard hymnal arrangements.[14][33]Notable Examples
Literary Instances
Emily Dickinson frequently employed common metre in her poetry, adapting the traditional hymn-like form to explore profound themes with a deceptive simplicity. In her renowned poem "Because I could not stop for Death" (c. 1863), the metre alternates between iambic tetrameter and trimeter lines in quatrains, creating a rhythmic carriage ride that mirrors the poem's narrative of a gentle passage into eternity. The opening stanza exemplifies this: Because I could not stop for Death –He kindly stopped for me –
The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
And Immortality.[34] Dickinson's use of slant rhymes, such as "me" with "Immortality," disrupts the expected perfect harmony of traditional common metre, infusing the form with tension that underscores the unsettling yet serene confrontation with mortality. This metrical execution enhances the theme of death as an unhurried companion, lending a folk-like universality to the personal introspection and emphasizing simplicity amid existential depth.[34] Robert Burns adapted common metre—often in its ballad stanza variant with ABCB rhyme scheme—to infuse his Scottish works with vernacular authenticity and emotional directness. His song "A Red, Red Rose" (1794) utilizes the form to celebrate enduring love through vivid, rustic imagery, as seen in the first stanza: O my Luve is like a red, red rose
That’s newly sprung in June;
O my Luve is like the melody
That’s sweetly played in tune.[35] The alternating tetrameter and trimeter lines evoke the lilt of oral tradition, reinforcing the poem's themes of timeless affection and natural simplicity while adapting the metre to Scots dialect for cultural resonance. Burns' execution grounds abstract emotions in everyday balladry, making profound sentiments accessible and enhancing the work's folkloric appeal.[35] In 20th-century literature, A. E. Housman revived common metre to convey poignant reflections on loss and transience, aligning the form's ballad simplicity with modern elegiac tones. His poem "Into my heart an air that kills" (1896) deploys the metre in two quatrains to evoke nostalgic yearning for a lost homeland, symbolizing irretrievable youth and mortality: Into my heart an air that kills
From yon far country blows:
What are those blue remembered hills,
What spires, what farms are those? That is the land of lost content,
I see it shining plain,
The happy highways where I went
And cannot come again. The steady iambic rhythm and ABAB rhyme scheme create a haunting, wind-like flow that amplifies the theme of inescapable separation, using the metre's hymn origins to impart a quiet inevitability to themes of mortality and the simplicity of faded memories. Housman's precise adherence to the form heightens the emotional restraint, transforming personal exile into universal lament.