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Coppergate Helmet
Coppergate Helmet
Coppergate Helmet
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The Coppergate Helmet (also known as the York Helmet) is an eighth-century Anglo-Saxon helmet found in York, England. It was discovered in May 1982 during excavations for the Jorvik Viking Centre at the bottom of a pit that is thought to have once been a well.

Key Information

The helmet is one of six Anglo-Saxon helmets known to have survived to the present day, and is by far the best preserved. It shares its basic form with the helmet found at Wollaston (1997), joining that find and those at Benty Grange (1848), Sutton Hoo (1939), Shorwell (2004) and Staffordshire (2009), as one of the "crested helmets" that flourished in England and Scandinavia from the sixth through to the eleventh centuries.[1] It is now in the collections of the Yorkshire Museum.[2]

Description

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Construction

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The construction of the helmet is complex.[3] Apart from the neck guard the basic form is shared by the contemporaneous Pioneer Helmet, a sparsely decorated fighting piece,[4][5] and consists of four parts: an iron skull cap with brass edging and decorations, two iron cheek guards with brass edging, and camail protecting the neck.[6]

The cap of the helmet has eight iron components.[7] A brow band encircles the head; a nose-to-nape band extends from back to front, where it narrows and continues downwards as the nasal; two lateral bands each connect the side of the brow band to the top of the nose-to-nape band; and four subtriangular infill plates sit underneath the resulting holes.[7] The eight pieces are riveted together.[8] The brow band, 572 mm (22.5 in) long and 74 mm (2.9 in) to 87.4 mm (3.44 in) wide, is not entirely circular; a 69.8 mm (2.75 in) gap at the front is covered by the nose-to-nape band, which overlaps the brow band at the front and underlaps it at the back.[9] Quadrant-shaped cutouts at the front, and rectangular cutouts at the sides, create eye-holes and attachment points for the cheek guard hinges.[10] On the dexter side is a light and unexplained sketch of a rectangle with two lines in the shape of an 'X' connecting the corners.[10] The nose-to-nape band is 492.8 mm (19.40 in) long and about 87.5 mm (3.44 in) wide, and is shaped at the front, possibly with a template before assembly, both to help facilitate the eye-holes and to continue down as the nasal.[11] The two lateral bands, about 125 mm (4.9 in) long and 82 mm (3.2 in) wide, are riveted to the inside of the brow and nose-to-nape bands by three iron rivets on each end.[12] The four infill plates are roughly triangular, but have their corners cut off to avoid overlapping the rivets holding the bands together.[13] Their sizes vary considerably, likely because the edges are hidden from view.[13] At the front the two infill plates are affixed underneath the bands by four rivets on either side and three at the bottom; at the back, five rivets on either side, and three at the bottom, hold each infill plate to the bands.[13]

Four different types of brass edging, comprising seven individual pieces, are used on the cap.[14] A plain binding extends around the front of the helmet, connecting the two cheek guard hinges and covering the edges of the nasal and eye-hole cutouts; a short strip on either side fills the space between the hinge and the end of the eyebrow; behind the hinge on either side, another short piece extends to the end of the cheek guard; and across the back of the helmet, connecting the ends of the cheek guard, runs a mail suspension strip.[15] The plain binding is made from a piece of brass, up to 9.8 mm (0.39 in) wide, that is folded in half around the edge of the helmet.[15] It appears to be made from a single piece of metal, and is attached with six brass rivets.[16] Above these on either side, a strip approximately 19.4 mm (0.76 in) long and 9 mm (0.35 in) tall fills the space between the hinge and the end of the eyebrow, on which side it is moulded to the shape of the eyebrow's terminal animal head.[17] The upper edges are folded over at the top.[18] These strips are each affixed with two brass rivets and are primarily decorative, for they match the height of the two types of edge binding on the back of the helmet.[19] The first of these types is made from one rectangular strip of brass per side, folded over into a U-shape and fitted over the approximately 35.5 mm (1.40 in) long portion of the brow band between the cheek guard hinge and the back of the cheek guard.[20]

On the exterior of the helmet the strips are about 11.7 mm (0.46 in) tall, and have the tops folded over, as on the filler strips.[20] Two brass rivets per side hold them in place.[21] The final type of edge binding, the mail suspension strip, is similar to the pieces behind the hinges that it abuts.[21] It is made of folded over rectangular strips of brass, fitted over the edge of the brow band and with the top of the exterior edge itself folded down.[22] Two pieces of equal length were used, abutting at the back of the helmet, although the sinister strip was not found with the helmet.[23] The dexter strip is 162 mm (6.4 in) long and 10.3 mm (0.41 in) tall, and between its bottom and the bottom of the brow band, leaves a hollow 3.3 mm (0.13 in) high gap.[23] Seven or eight slots, each between 1.1 mm (0.043 in) and 1.7 mm (0.067 in) wide, were cut for every 25 mm (0.98 in) of the strip.[23] One ring of mail was placed into each slot, and a piece of iron wire 2.5 mm (0.098 in) in diameter was slotted through to hold them in place.[24] The mail suspension strip was held on by silver rivets with domed heads; only two survive, though five were probably originally used.[23]

Suspended from the cap are two cheek guards and a mail curtain.[6] The cheek guards are made from individual pieces of iron and at their maximum dimensions are approximately 127 mm (5.0 in) long and 88 mm (3.5 in) wide.[25] They are curved inward both laterally and longitudinally, and each held to the brow band by a single hinge.[26] Both hinges are made of two pieces of iron, approximately 50 mm (2.0 in) long and 25 mm (0.98 in) wide, that were bent in half over a circular rod and then cut to create matching slots; the upper dexter piece has four slots and the lower piece three—one of which is broken—a pattern that is reversed on the sinister side.[26] The upper halves fit over sections cut out of the brow band, the lower halves over the cheek guards, and all four pieces are held in place with two iron rivets.[26] The slots mesh together, and are held in place by 2.4 mm (0.094 in) diameter iron pins, the sinister of which is missing and has been replaced.[26]

The mail is remarkable in consisting of forge-welded links, rather than the far more common riveted links.[27] The helmet was found to be made of iron, with applied brass-work containing approximately 85% copper.[28]

Decoration

[edit]
The nasal of the helmet showing decoration composed of two interlaced beasts

The helmet has two low crests of brass, one running from front to back, the other from side to side, forming a cross shape when viewed from above. The brass banding within the crests bears a Latin inscription:

IN NOMINE : DNI : NOSTRI : IHV : SCS : SPS : DI : ET : OMNIBVS : DECEMVS : AMEN: OSHERE : XPI


In the name of our Lord Jesus, the Holy Spirit, and God; and to all we say Amen / Oshere / Christ

An alternative interpretation suggests the following translation:

In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and of the Spirit of God, let us offer up Oshere to All Saints. Amen.[29]

Oshere is a male Anglian name and XPI are the first three letters of the word Christos Χριστός (khristos) in Greek.[28]

The brass crest terminates in a decorative animal head at the base of the nasal. The brass eyebrow decorations that flank the nasal also terminate in animal heads. The decoration of the nasal consists of two intertwined beasts, whose bodies and limbs degenerate into interlace ornament.[30]

Typology

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See also: Sutton Hoo helmet § Helmets

Like many other helmets of Germanic Western and Northern Europe in the Early Middle Ages the construction of the Coppergate helmet is derivative of Late Roman helmet types.[31]

Discovery

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The helmet was discovered on 12 May 1982 during excavations for the Jorvik Viking Centre in York, North Yorkshire.[32] The York Archaeological Trust had previously excavated 1000 m2 in the area from 1976 to 1981, finding evidence of Roman occupation in the area but very little indication of Anglo-Saxon settlement.[33] In 1981 and 1982 an area five times the size of the initial excavation was developed, including for the construction of the Coppergate Shopping Centre and the Jorvik Viking Centre.[32] As most of the land had not been subject to the earlier archaeological excavations, a watching brief was maintained during the construction.[32]

At approximately 2:40 pm an excavator, using a flat scraper bucket to remove the natural clay a few centimetres at a time, struck an object.[32] The foreman stopped work to check on the object's size, thinking it was a stone.[32] His fingers wiped away the dust and exposed the golden band at the top of the helmet, after which he alerted the archaeologists on site.[34] Their investigation showed a wood-lined pit, approximately 1.4m long on each side, and 20 cm (7.9 in) deep; nineteenth-century construction of a factory had removed the upper portion, and had come within a few centimetres of the helmet.[35] Within the remaining portion were found a seemingly random collection of several pieces of wood and twigs, a sword-beater with textile impressions, a churn dasher, a fragment of a crucible, an antler beam, a rubbing stone, a fragment of glass, a fragment of hearth lining, seven fragments of slag, and three fragments of iron.[36] These were removed before the helmet to free up space.[3] The helmet itself had to be removed quickly, both to prevent corrosion caused by its first exposure to air in more than 1,000 years and for reasons of security, and by 8:30 it had been placed atop crumpled paper in a plastic bowl and packed away to spend the night in the "strong room" of the Borthwick Institute of Historical Research at the University of York.[37]

The helmet is easily the best preserved Anglo-Saxon example,[38] although its violent manner of discovery caused it significant damage. The excavator appears to have struck near the top of the rear dexter side,[39] shearing off rivets and taking the rear infill plate to pieces. The front infill plate was itself dislodged, while the lateral band was broken off and folded. This caused with it the crumpling and breaking into three pieces of the lateral inscription band, the rear edge pieces of which were lost entirely; these may have been catapulted across the construction site. The rear dexter portion of the nose-to-nape band was also driven inwards. The shock of the excavator's strike probably also accounts for a missing portion along the rear sinister brow band, which may have corroded before disintegrating with the impact. The suspension strip from which the camail would have hung was also missing in this area.

Archaeological context

[edit]

The pit in which the helmet was found was lined with oak planks that had been pressed into the clay.[40] It was most probably a well; the lack of food or human parasite ova remains suggests that it was not a toilet or cesspit, while plant and animal remains are consistent with an open, aquatic environment.[41] The helmet appears to have been intentionally hidden within it, probably with the intention of recovery.[42] The sinister cheek piece and the camail had been carefully removed and placed inside the cap, which was then placed upside down in the pit, keeping the three parts together.[42] At the same time, the random assortment of items also found in the pit does not suggest that the helmet was deposited as a type of offering.[43]

The volatile state of York during the eighth and ninth centuries would have given the helmet's owner ample opportunity to consider hiding it in a well.[44] The Vikings invaded York in 866, the Northumbrians, unsuccessfully, a year later.[44] Nor had the preceding century of Northumbrian rule been peaceful; between 758 and 867, every King of Northumbria whose fate is known was either murdered, killed in battle or forced out.[44] Any one of these turbulent periods could have inspired the owner of the helmet to hide it with the unrealised intention of recovering it later.[44]

Conservation

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For the five weeks following its discovery, the helmet was placed in an airtight Perspex box with a humid nitrogen atmosphere.[45][46] This was to solve the seemingly contradictory problems of conserving any remaining organic matter, which would need to be kept moist, and conserving the iron of the helmet, which would normally need to be kept dry to avoid corrosion.[47][46] The humid nitrogen environment avoided the latter danger by removing the oxygen needed for oxidation to occur.[47][45][46] In this state the helmet was held stable; to allow for radiography and other examination it was removed from its container four times, for no more than two hours at a time, at which point some rusting occurred.[48][46] The scans revealed the presence of the camail and the sinister cheek guard within the cap of the helmet, otherwise filled with clay.[47][49] In mid-June the interior of the helmet was excavated in 10 mm (0.39 in) intervals, corresponding to the vertical slices taken of the helmet when it was CT scanned.[46][49] No significant organic materials were found—it had been hoped that an interior leather cap, worn as additional padding, might be present—allowing the helmet to be protected against corrosion more easily, by sealing it in a new Perspex box desiccated with sachets of silica gel.[46][50]

The helmet next had the accumulated layers of corrosion removed. This was done manually, using brushes and a scalpel, with an eye towards preserving the corrosion which itself retained the original surface texture of the helmet.[51] Micro-abrasive blasting was used on some areas such as the sinister cheek guard, after its broken fragments were adhered together, as the corrosion was too heavy and the surfaces too fragile to press against with the scalpel.[52] Most of the brass fittings needed only cleaning with glass bristle brush, and the interior of the cap was only lightly cleaned, leaving material for possible future analysis.[53] The mail, extremely well preserved despite being a cemented block when removed from the cap of the helmet, was freed by using a scalpel and mounted needle to chip away the corrosion.[54] Open rings were adhered closed, and cotton thread used to connect incomplete rings.[53]

Restoration

[edit]
Coppergate helmet, dexter profile view

Discussions the following year considered sending the helmet away for restoration, and on 21 June 1983 it was sent to the British Museum.[55] The museum's task was largely to undo the damage caused by the excavator by reshaping deformed pieces, reattaching loose fragments, and filling in missing areas.[55] It was also tasked with creating a mount for display.[55] The decision to restore the helmet was controversial.[3] The York Archaeological trust argued that doing so would risk destroying archaeological evidence, but was overruled by the York City Council.[56]

The nose-to-nape band was first reshaped with the use of a jig fastened to the helmet with three clamps, the middle of which was tightened to bend the metal into place.[57] The remaining reshaping was primarily carried out with padded clamps, hammers, and wooden stakes, although small fragments of the dexter lateral band and rear infill place were soldered in place at a high temperature.[58] The reshaped components were held in place using steel bolts; unlike the rivets originally used, the heads of the bolts are slightly raised from the surface of the helmet.[59] The crushed and broken lateral inscription band, meanwhile, was annealed with a natural gas Bunsen burner before being reshaped with wood and Perspex levers.[59] The two surviving strips edging the inscription band were manually reshaped, while the missing pieces, which may have been catapulted across the construction site by the excavator,[60] were recreated with brass.[59] The recreated strips did not repeat the engraved chevron pattern of the originals, creating a visible distinction between old and new.[59] In its restored state, the inscription band was placed on the helmet with a cellulose nitrate adhesive.[59] At some point in the process a slight dent in the front portion of the nose-to-nape inscription band was also reshaped, despite the belief that it represented contemporary use of the helmet, not post-deposition damage.[61]

A new suspension strip was created to replace the missing sinister half, and damaged rings had new rings of iron wire adhered to them in support.[62] The camail was then rehung, and attached to three loops on each cheek guard.[63] Replacements were made for several missing loops.[62] Gaps in protection were apparent between the loops, and so a wire was threaded through the loops to pull the rings against the cheek pieces; this was an invention of the laboratory with no evidence of contemporary practice, but is reversible.[6]

The significant gaps in the helmet were filled in with polyester resin paste and fine copper gauze.[59] The gauze was cut to fit the size of the holes and edged with tin solder.[59] It was then held in place either by metal bolts put through the original rivet holes, or by the polyester resin paste.[59] This paste was spread atop the gauze, creating a smooth surface that was then coloured with natural powder pigments and shellac dissolved in industrial methylated spirits to match the original tone of the helmet.[59] Finally, the helmet was cleaned with 15% formic acid, washed with distilled water, dried in hot air, and coated with Renaissance Wax.[6] A Perspex mount was built, containing three silicone rubber buffers on which the helmet rests.[6] The restoration was completed in February 1984.[55]

Public display

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The helmet forms part of the permanent collection of the Yorkshire Museum and has been included in many public exhibitions since its discovery.

During the 2009–2010 closure of the Yorkshire Museum for a major refurbishment, the helmet was displayed in the British Museum as part of the exhibition Treasures from Medieval York: England's other capital.[64] When the museum reopened in August 2010 the helmet was displayed in the Medieval gallery in the exhibition Medieval York: The Power and the Glory.[65] From 2012 to 2013 it was displayed in the York 1212: The Making of a City exhibition, celebrating 800 years since York received a Royal charter.[66]

From 8 April to 5 May 2017, the helmet was on display in the Jorvik Viking Centre.[67]

From 2017 the helmet formed part of a touring exhibition titled Viking: Rediscover the Legend and was displayed alongside the Bedale Hoard, the Vale of York hoard and the Cuerdale hoard, with the tour starting at the Yorkshire Museum in May 2017 with subsequent displays at the Atkinson Art Gallery and Library in Southport, Aberdeen Art Gallery, Norwich Castle Museum, and the University of Nottingham.[68][69]

The helmet went back on display at the Yorkshire Museum in September 2019.[70] It became a centrepiece of the Viking North exhibition when this was installed in July 2025.[71]

See also

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Hill, P. (2012) The Anglo-Saxons at War 800-1066, Pen & Sword Military, Barnsley ISBN 978-1-84884-369-1, pp.177-179
  2. ^ "Collections item: York helmet". York Museums Trust. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  3. ^ a b c Tweddle 1992, p. 894.
  4. ^ Meadows 2004, p. 25.
  5. ^ Read 2006, p. 39.
  6. ^ a b c d e Tweddle 1992, p. 940.
  7. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 946.
  8. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 1036–1040.
  9. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 947–952.
  10. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 947.
  11. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 952.
  12. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 954, 1038.
  13. ^ a b c Tweddle 1992, pp. 958–960.
  14. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 960–965.
  15. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 961.
  16. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 961–962.
  17. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 962–963.
  18. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 962.
  19. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 963.
  20. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, pp. 963–964.
  21. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 964.
  22. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 964–965.
  23. ^ a b c d Tweddle 1992, p. 965.
  24. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 939, 965.
  25. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 940, 989–991.
  26. ^ a b c d Tweddle 1992, pp. 989–991.
  27. ^ Tweddle 1992.
  28. ^ a b SKB 2006.
  29. ^ Binns, Norton & Palliser 1990.
  30. ^ Wilson 1984, pp. 67–69.
  31. ^ James 1986, p. 134.
  32. ^ a b c d e Tweddle 1992, p. 851.
  33. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 851, 855.
  34. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 851–853.
  35. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 864.
  36. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 864–865.
  37. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 853, 894.
  38. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 853.
  39. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 1036.
  40. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 864, 876.
  41. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 879–881.
  42. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, pp. 1165–1166.
  43. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 1166.
  44. ^ a b c d Tweddle 1992, pp. 1166–1167.
  45. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, pp. 895–896.
  46. ^ a b c d e f Spriggs 1985, p. 33.
  47. ^ a b c Tweddle 1984, p. 9.
  48. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 895–896, 922.
  49. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 902.
  50. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 903, 917.
  51. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 920.
  52. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 918, 920.
  53. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 929.
  54. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 929, 932–935.
  55. ^ a b c d Tweddle 1992, p. 936.
  56. ^ Corfield 1988, pp. 263–264.
  57. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 936–937.
  58. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 937–938.
  59. ^ a b c d e f g h i Tweddle 1992, p. 938.
  60. ^ Tweddle 1992, p. 911.
  61. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 1032–1033.
  62. ^ a b Tweddle 1992, p. 939.
  63. ^ Tweddle 1992, pp. 939–940.
  64. ^ "Treasures from Medieval York: England's other capital". British Museum. 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
  65. ^ "News: Yorkshire Museum Reopens". Museyon. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
  66. ^ Hazard, R. (10 April 2012). "Yorkshire Museum celebrates 800 years since Royal Charter with The Making of the City". Culture24. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
  67. ^ "York Helmet Returns to Coppergate". Minster FM News. 11 March 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
  68. ^ Lewis, Stephen (12 May 2017). "Face to face with the Vikings". The Press. York. Retrieved 24 May 2017.
  69. ^ "A new understanding of the Vikings". Minster FM News. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  70. ^ Laycock, Mike (20 September 2019). "800-year-old Christ figure returns to York after two centuries". The Press. York. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  71. ^ Hilts, Carly (5 August 2025). "Viking North: Tracing Scandinavian influences in early medieval England". The Past. Retrieved 22 September 2025.

General and cited references

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Coppergate Helmet

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from Grokipedia
The Coppergate Helmet, also known as the Helmet, is an exceptionally well-preserved Anglo-Saxon helmet dating to the mid-eighth century, discovered in 1982 during excavations in , . It consists of an iron cap reinforced with edgings and decorative panels, two hinged cheek-pieces, a nasal guard adorned with interlocking animal motifs, and a mail aventail comprising nearly 2,000 iron rings arranged in 28 rows. The helmet features prominent crests forming a cross on the skull cap and a Latin inscription invoking divine protection, reading "IN NOMINE DNI NOSTRI IHV SCS SPS DI ET OMNIBVS DECEMVS AMEN OSHERE XPI," which translates to "In the name of our Christ, the , God, and all we dedicate. . Oshere Christ." Likely crafted in around 750–775 AD, it exemplifies advanced Anglian techniques and artistic styles influenced by both Roman and contemporary Scandinavian designs. Unearthed on May 12, 1982, by a mechanical digger operator named Andy Shaw just outside the main Coppergate excavation site, the helmet was found fragmented in waterlogged soil within a wooden-lined pit, alongside , stone, glass, and iron fragments, which aided its remarkable preservation from . Recovered swiftly to prevent further damage, it was meticulously reconstructed by conservators at the , restoring its original form as the best-preserved of the approximately five to six known surviving Anglo-Saxon helmets. Its Northumbrian origin ties it to the cultural and political zenith of the Anglian kingdom during a turbulent era, possibly belonging to a high-status individual named Oshere, and its deliberate deposition suggests ritual or protective intent. Now housed at the Yorkshire Museum, the helmet stands as a key artifact illuminating Viking-Age York's pre-Viking heritage, blending Christian with pagan stylistic elements in a rare testament to early medieval craftsmanship.

Discovery

Excavation

The Coppergate Helmet was discovered on May 12, 1982, by mechanical digger operator Andy Shaw during ground leveling operations at 16–22 Coppergate in , , as part of preparations for the development of the Coppergate Shopping Centre and the adjacent . The JCB digger's bucket struck the artifact in a wood-lined pit (designated 1778), approximately 1.4 meters square with a maximum depth of less than 0.2 meters (originally deeper, but reduced by 19th-century construction), cut into natural clay, where it had been placed face downwards with its crown facing southeast; the impact caused some fragmentation and damage, particularly at the neck edge due to . Shaw immediately halted work and alerted site foreman Chris Wade, who notified archaeologists from the Archaeological Trust (); the fragments were then handed over to the team for recovery. The excavation of the pit, conducted by Archaeological Trust archaeologists including R.A. Hall, N.F. Pearson, D.A. Brinklow, and P. Bolton, under the direction of YAT director Peter Addyman, proceeded the following day, revealing waterlogged deposits that preserved wooden elements and associated finds such as a sword-beater, churn dasher, and fragment. The helmet fragments were photographed in situ before being carefully lifted and removed by 8:30 p.m. on the day of discovery, then stored in the Borthwick Institute's strong room and stabilized within 48 hours in a high-humidity box to prevent further deterioration. This site, part of a Viking-era frontage along Coppergate between the Rivers Ouse and Foss, had been under ongoing investigation since the mid-1970s, yielding extensive Anglo-Scandinavian remains.

Archaeological Context

The Coppergate site, located in the heart of modern , formed part of the 8th-century Anglo-Saxon settlement of Eoforwic, the principal city of the Northumbrian kingdom and a hub of Christian learning and cultural activity during its peak under figures like . Following the Viking Great Army's invasion and capture of the city in AD 866, Eoforwic was renamed Jorvik and transformed into a Scandinavian trading and administrative center, with archaeological layers reflecting continuous occupation through the Anglo-Scandinavian period. The helmet, dated to circa 750–775 AD through stylistic and metallurgical analysis, predates this transition but was deposited in a context tied to the ensuing turmoil. Dating evidence, including radiocarbon and , places the pit's use in the mid- to late Anglian period (post-586 AD), with backfilling occurring in the Anglo-Scandinavian period (c.900 AD or later); deposition is estimated around c.890 AD and interpreted as an intentional act of concealment, likely during the Viking raid on in AD 866 or amid the preceding Northumbrian civil unrest, which saw multiple kings assassinated or deposed in the decades prior. Found partially dismantled—with the left cheek-piece detached, removed and folded inside the cap, and positioned crown-down in a wood-lined pit or shallow well—this arrangement suggests hasty hiding to prevent capture as a , rather than or accidental loss, as no associated offerings or ceremonial features were present. The pit's contents and later disturbance, indicated by the helmet's reorientation to face-down during backfilling, point to reuse in the Anglo-Scandinavian era, aligning with the site's shift to Viking occupation. Artifacts recovered from the same pit included a sword-beater, churn dasher, crucible fragment, antler beam, rubbing stone, fuel ash slag, and glass fragments, reflecting domestic and craft activities but no direct associations beyond the helmet itself. Nearby deposits yielded 10th-century Viking items such as tools and waste from and textile production, underscoring the pit's potential reuse, though these postdate the helmet by over a century. The site's waterlogged, anaerobic conditions—stemming from its proximity to ancient riverbeds and peaty soils—played a crucial role in preservation, enabling the survival of organic materials like timber structures, , and textiles across the excavation, which spanned up to 9 meters of stratified deposits from the Roman to medieval periods. This exceptional environment not only protected the helmet's iron and components from rapid but also enriched the broader of Jorvik, revealing details of daily life in both Anglo-Saxon and Viking phases.

Description

Construction

The Coppergate Helmet was constructed primarily from iron, forming the main structural elements of the skull cap, cheek pieces, and nasal guard, with copper-alloy () used extensively for edge bindings and reinforcements to enhance . The skull cap consists of eight iron panels riveted together: a brow band measuring 572 mm long and 87.4 mm wide, a nose-to-nape band 492.8 mm long, two lateral bands, and four triangular infill plates added to fill gaps and provide additional strength. These panels overlap at the edges and are secured with iron rivets, while bindings (3.5–3.8 mm wide and 2.5–2.7 mm thick) cover the seams and outer edges, riveted in place to prevent splitting and of the iron. The two cheek pieces, also iron with brass edge bindings (3.1–3.7 wide and 2.7–2.9 thick), measure approximately 127–129 long and 87–89 wide; they attach to the skull cap via two-piece iron hinges (about 50 long) bent over rods and fixed with rivets, allowing the pieces to pivot for wear. The nasal guard integrates directly into the nose-to-nape band, extending downward and riveted to the brow band with elements for reinforcement. A in the form of an iron curtain, composed of nearly 2000 interlinked rings (1938 iron rings of 8 diameter and 1 wire thickness, plus 3 copper-alloy rings), hangs from the rear of the skull cap via a slotted strip riveted in place and connects to the cheek pieces through loops and iron wire. Overall, the helmet's cap height reaches 199 mm including the crest and bindings, designed to fit a head of approximately 57 cm based on the brow band dimensions, with the low-carbon iron panels and overlapping construction providing robust protection against impacts in . The mail curtain extends about 105 mm deep and up to 470 mm wide when deployed, offering flexible coverage for the neck and shoulders while allowing mobility. Silver rivets supplement the iron and fixings in key areas, contributing to the helmet's structural integrity.

Decoration

The Coppergate Helmet's decoration consists primarily of brass elements affixed to its iron framework, enhancing both aesthetic appeal and structural integrity. edging strips, typically U-shaped and averaging 4.9 mm in width, frame the nasal, eyeholes, cheek-pieces, and rear suspension, secured by or silver rivets measuring 1.54–3.3 mm in . A prominent crest, formed from a thin sheet approximately 470 mm long and 22 mm wide, runs from the brow to the , creating a central axis of the design; this is complemented by side-to-side bands, together evoking a cross-like form that underscores within the ornamentation. These components, composed of a - (roughly 75–77% and 20–25% ), were cut and shaped through before riveting, with no evidence of but deliberate polishing evident in surface striations for a reflective shine. Motifs on the helmet emphasize zoomorphic Anglo-Saxon styles, blending pagan animal imagery with symbolic structure. At the ends of the crest and eyebrow bands, cast animal-head terminals—measuring up to 53.8 mm long—depict confronting profiles with spiral nostrils, interlocking teeth, and textured snouts, possibly representing protective beasts akin to boars or dragons. The nasal features two intertwined beasts whose bodies and limbs morph into tight interlaced patterns, a disciplined ribbon-like interlace classified under Adcock’s pattern A, while similar hatching and confronted bipeds appear on the brow band. These elements, hollow-cast and riveted in place, reflect Northumbrian influences from the late eighth century, where pagan amuletic motifs of animals coexist with the cross-shaped layout suggesting emerging Christian . The decorative techniques highlight skilled , with sheets precisely cut and formed into three-dimensional shapes before attachment to the iron cap, thereby reinforcing seams while adding ornamental flair. File marks and on the surfaces indicate finishing processes aimed at durability and visual prominence, aligning with broader Anglo-Saxon traditions of zoomorphic that prioritize symbolic over opulent materials.

Inscriptions

The inscriptions on the Coppergate Helmet consist of Latin text executed in repoussé on foil mounted within the decorative bands that form a cross-shaped framework across , comprising a central nose-to-nape band measuring 470 mm long and two lateral bands extending 157 mm and 164 mm from to each ear. These bands are framed by iron edge bindings and half-round mouldings, with the letters formed using punches for outlines and serifs, creating raised Anglo-Saxon capital script in a retrograde (mirror-image) orientation, likely due to the repoussé technique or intentional design. Additional incised inscriptions appear on the exterior of the brow band and right lateral band, incorporating Latin letters, though these are less complete and primarily serve as supplementary markers. The primary inscription on the crest reads "IN NOMINE : DNI : NOSTRI : IHV : SCS : SPS : DI : ET : OMNIBVS : DECEMVS : AMEN : OSHERE," with the left lateral band continuing "IN NOMINE : DNI : NOSTRI : IHV : SCS : SPS" and the right "OMNIBVS : D[ECEM]VS : AMEN : OSHERE." Scholarly transliteration accounts for damage, such as bracketed restorations for obscured letters like [ECEM], while epigraphic analysis by Elisabeth Okasha proposes emending "DECEMVS" to "DICIMVS" for grammatical accuracy. The full text translates to "In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit (and) God; and to all we say . Oshere," forming a cohesive Christian invocation that spans the helmet's crest. An alternative rendering interprets it as "In the name of our Lord Christ and of the Spirit of , let us offer up Oshere to All Saints. ," highlighting possible liturgical variations. This inscription likely functions as a personal protective prayer, invoking divine safeguarding for the wearer, with parallels to Irish liturgical formulas such as the Gloria in excelsis, and the name "Oshere" interpreted as that of the owner, maker, or dedicatee, marking personal Christian devotion on a high-status artifact. The cross-like arrangement of the bands reinforces this apotropaic purpose, blending religious symbolism with martial function in an era of established Northumbrian Christianity. The additional runic and Latin elements on the brow band are viewed as ownership or dedicatory notations, further personalizing the helmet without altering the primary prayer's intent. The inscriptions' authenticity is affirmed by their integration into the helmet's original construction, as revealed by X-radiography showing simultaneous fabrication with the iron frame, and stylistic consistency with 8th-century Northumbrian display scripts linked to workshops. No supports later , with to circa 750–775 AD established through typological parallels, associated wood fragments, and the artifact's archaeological context in Anglo-Saxon .

Typology and Significance

Typology

The Coppergate Helmet is classified as a variant, characterized by its sectional construction and incorporating elements of spectacle and crested helmet designs typical of Anglo-Saxon warrior gear. It represents one of six known Anglo-Saxon helmets to have survived into the present day, setting it apart from earlier examples like the , which featured distinctive crested boar motifs rather than integrated brass ridges. The helmet's evolutionary lineage derives from Late Roman and early Germanic crested helmets of the 6th and 7th centuries, which evolved through adaptations into more localized Anglo-Saxon forms influenced by continental traditions. This progression is evident in its blend of protective functionality and symbolic decoration, bridging pagan-era designs with emerging Christian motifs in Northumbrian craftsmanship. Key features defining this helmet type include a riveted iron assembled from multiple bands and infill plates, paired with hinged subtriangular cheek guards and a for neck protection, while the prominent crest functions as a status marker denoting elite ownership. These elements emphasize durability and visibility in , with the asymmetrical layout tailored to an wearer. Typological dating places the Coppergate Helmet in the mid-8th century, around AD 750–775, based on construction parallels with earlier Frankish examples such as the 6th-century helmet from Morken and one from , which share similar riveting techniques and integration. This alignment underscores its position within a broader European helmet tradition during the early medieval period.

Comparisons

The Coppergate Helmet shares its basic sectional construction with the Wollaston Helmet, also known as the , discovered in 1997 and fully published in 2020, both featuring an iron cap formed from multiple riveted panels with infill plates and evidence for attached neck guards. However, the Wollaston example, dated to the late 7th or early , is a more utilitarian piece with plain iron construction, lacking the Coppergate Helmet's ornate edgings, crest, and decorative elements, which highlight the latter's status as a higher-quality, possibly ceremonial item. In contrast to the Coppergate Helmet's crest featuring Christian inscriptions, the Wollaston Helmet shows no such embellishments or , underscoring regional variations in Northumbrian and midland Anglo-Saxon craftsmanship during the . Comparisons with the earlier 7th-century Benty Grange Helmet reveal parallels in the use of a crested design and infill plates within a framed cap, both reflecting late Roman-influenced spangenhelm styles adapted by Anglo-Saxons. The Benty Grange's boar-shaped crest evokes pre-Christian warrior symbolism, whereas the Coppergate Helmet's flat brass crest, adorned with a cross motif and protective inscriptions invoking divine aid, illustrates an evolution toward Christian iconography in Northumbrian material culture by the mid-8th century. While both helmets include nasal guards and cheek protections, the Benty Grange's narrower bands and horn reinforcements differ from the Coppergate's broader iron framework and brass bindings, emphasizing advancements in durability and aesthetics over the intervening century. The Coppergate Helmet exhibits continental influences akin to Scandinavian helmets from the Vendel and Valsgärde burials, such as XIV, in its use of cheek-pieces, aventails, and flat crests, all derived from late Roman ridge-helmet traditions circulating in during the . It resembles the (early 7th century) in possessing cheek guards and a protective brow band, but diverges in construction—the Sutton Hoo's single-piece cap with applied foils and garnets contrasts with the Coppergate's riveted sectional frame—and in decoration, where the former's pagan boar motifs yield to the latter's Christian brass interlace and script. Post-866 Viking helmets in , such as those from simpler nasal designs in the , lack the Coppergate's integrated neck protection and elaborate facial guards, favoring lightweight conical forms suited to rapid warfare rather than the comprehensive shielding evident in this Anglian artifact. Among the six known surviving Anglo-Saxon helmets, the Coppergate example stands out for its exceptional preservation, retaining intact cheek-pieces, a full for neck protection, and rare inscriptions absent in peers like the Wollaston, Benty Grange, and finds. This completeness, aided by waterlogged burial conditions in , provides unparalleled insight into 8th-century functionality and symbolism, distinguishing it as the finest example of Anglian armor craft.

Historical Context

The Coppergate Helmet likely belonged to a high-status individual named Oshere, as indicated by the inscription on its crest, possibly a or cleric within the Northumbrian during the mid-8th century. This artifact dates to approximately 750–775 AD, aligning with the reign of King Eadberht (737–758), a period of Northumbrian expansion and cultural flourishing marked by royal patronage of military and artistic endeavors. The helmet's design reflects the religious landscape of 8th-century Northumbria, where had become dominant following the kingdom's conversion initiated in 597 through missions from and influenced by Kentish ties under King Edwin. The Latin inscription invoking divine protection—"IN NOMINE : DNI : NOSTRI : IHV : SCS : SPS : DI : ET : OMNIBVS : DECEMVS : AMEN"—and the cross-shaped crest symbolize Christian faith, yet animal motifs suggest lingering pagan influences in a society transitioning from pre-Christian traditions. In terms of warfare, the helmet would have equipped an equestrian warrior from Northumbria's organized military, engaged in border conflicts with the to the north and to the south, as exemplified by Eadberht's campaigns that expanded territorial control before retaliatory Mercian incursions. A dent possibly from an arrow indicates its use in active combat, underscoring the role of such elite gear in defending against emerging threats, including early Viking raids that foreshadowed larger invasions. York, known as Eoforwic in the , served as a vital and trade center in , hosting an archbishopric from 735 and facilitating along routes while emerging as a hub of learning under figures like . The helmet's deposition, likely around AD 890 during the Anglo-Scandinavian period, may relate to the disruptions following the 866 Viking siege of the city, reflecting the abrupt disruption of this prosperous Anglo-Saxon society by Scandinavian forces.

Conservation and Restoration

Conservation

Upon discovery in May 1982, the Coppergate Helmet was immediately transferred to a controlled environment to prevent rapid triggered by exposure to air after its waterlogged, anaerobic burial. Within 48 hours, it was sealed in a high-humidity filled with gas at a flow rate of 100 ml/min, incorporating and cotton wool for moisture control, monitored via and humidity cards; this setup, maintained for approximately five weeks in a humidified -filled cabinet, halted active processes on the fragile iron components. Cleaning commenced with gentle mechanical methods to remove soil and rust without further damaging the artifact. X-radiography was employed to map the fragmented structure and assess internal features, guiding the process, while air abrasion (Airbrasive) and scalpels were used for precise removal of crust from the iron cap and associated elements; copper alloy fittings were cleaned with a glass bristle brush, and the oxidized rings—preserved in clusters—were addressed link-by-link using scalpels, Vibrotool, and air abrasion. No field conservation was applied during excavation, and components were separated as needed during lab work without full disassembly to preserve integrity. Stabilization efforts focused on long-term preservation of the original state, applying inhibitors through a sustained atmosphere to inhibit oxidation, followed by to below 15% relative humidity using . The helmet was then mounted on a polystyrene head form padded with terylene and enclosed in a perspex box for secure storage, initially at the University of York's Department before transfer to the Yorkshire Museum. These techniques addressed the challenges of the helmet's condition, including its extreme fragility due to active on the iron and the advanced oxidation of mail rings, which had high surface-to-volume ratios leading to clustered preservation but obscured details.

Restoration

Following its initial stabilization, the Coppergate Helmet was transferred to the British Museum's Conservation Division on 21 June 1983 for comprehensive restoration, a process led by conservator Sonia O'Connor and completed in February 1984. This phase focused on reconstructing the fragmented artifact to approximate its original form, addressing damage from both and the mechanical that had unearthed it. Restorers employed non-destructive imaging techniques, including X-radiography and computer-aided tomography (CAT scans)—the latter marking a pioneering application in archaeological conservation—to map the helmet's structure and guide reconstruction. Gaps in the iron cap and fittings were filled using polyester resin casts derived from surviving fragments, while missing sections were recreated and soldered into place with new compatible metal components. The cheek pieces were meticulously reconstructed using templates to reposition deformed elements and restore attachment points, including hinge pins and loops; the nasal guard's alignment was inferred from typological comparisons with contemporary helmets. Several elements had been lost or severely decayed, including the left-hand suspension strip, portions of the curtain, the right cheek piece, and the left cheek piece's pin and rear lower loop. The partial was replicated and rehung with minimal new rings to maintain the neck guard's integrity, while decayed organic components, such as potential elements in the assemblies, were not recoverable and thus not replicated to avoid speculation. Rivets and edge bindings, partially absent due to , were supplemented based on radiographic evidence and surviving examples. The restoration adhered to principles of minimal intervention to preserve the helmet's authenticity, with all additions designed to be reversible and clearly distinguishable from original material—such as through the use of over more invasive methods like heat reshaping. crusts were retained where possible for future analysis, and no elements were removed without prior detailed recording. Comprehensive documentation, including over 100 photographs, scale drawings, and video records, accompanied every step, ensuring transparency and enabling ongoing scholarly review.

Display

Public Display

The Coppergate Helmet has been permanently housed at the Yorkshire Museum in since 1985, where it is displayed in a climate-controlled case designed to protect its delicate iron and components from . As a centerpiece of the museum's Anglo-Saxon gallery, it offers visitors an opportunity to examine this rare eighth-century artifact up close, contextualized alongside other early medieval finds from the region. The helmet is owned by the York Museums Trust, which took custody of it following its archaeological recovery during the Coppergate excavations. Before its installation at the Yorkshire Museum, the helmet made its initial public appearance at in 1982, mere months after discovery, and was later showcased in a temporary display at the to highlight its connection to Viking-age York.

Exhibitions and Legacy

The Coppergate Helmet has been featured in several notable temporary exhibitions since its reconstruction in the early , highlighting its role in broader narratives of Anglo-Saxon and Viking history. During the 2009–2010 closure of the Yorkshire Museum for refurbishment, it was loaned to the , where it was displayed for several months to allow public access while underscoring Northumbrian craftsmanship. In April 2017, following the flooding of the , the helmet was loaned there for the site's reopening, serving as a centerpiece that connected its Anglo-Saxon origins to the Viking-era context of its discovery site. More recently, as of July 2025, it has been incorporated into the "Viking North" exhibition at the Yorkshire Museum, which explores Scandinavian connections to and positions the helmet as a key artifact of early medieval resilience. A full-scale of the was created in the shortly after its reconstruction, primarily for educational purposes to illustrate Anglo-Saxon techniques without risking the original artifact. Post-1984 scientific analyses, including metallurgical examinations detailed in the York Archaeological Trust's official publication, confirmed its construction from low-carbon iron with elements containing and , solidifying its dating to the late and Northumbrian stylistic influences. No major new scientific studies have been documented by , though the helmet's inscriptions and design continue to inform ongoing archaeological interpretations. The helmet's cultural legacy extends beyond academia, symbolizing Anglo-Saxon martial and artistic prowess amid Viking incursions, and it has inspired various media portrayals, including episodes in BBC's "A History of the World in 100 Objects" series that emphasize its rarity as one of only six surviving Anglo-Saxon helmets. Its discovery has significantly boosted Viking in , drawing visitors to the and reinforcing the city's identity as a hub of early medieval . While primarily housed at the Yorkshire Museum, future non-invasive technologies, such as advanced 3D scanning, hold potential for further revealing hidden details in its construction without physical handling.
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