Coquelles

Coquelles is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department of the Hauts-de-France region in northern France, located immediately adjacent to the port city of Calais and serving as the site of the French terminal for the Channel Tunnel.^[1][2] Covering an area of 8.8 square kilometers with a population of 2,625 inhabitants as of 2022, it is a densely populated urban belt community with a density of approximately 299 people per square kilometer.^[3][4] Historically, Coquelles traces its origins to at least 1145, when it was first mentioned as Qualquella, possibly derived from a Roman road or local lime production activities.^[5] The area experienced English occupation from 1347 to 1558 before being reconquered by French forces, and its modern development accelerated with the construction of the Channel Tunnel, which began in 1987 and was inaugurated on May 6, 1994, linking Coquelles directly to Folkestone, United Kingdom, via a 50.5-kilometre rail tunnel, of which 37 kilometres run beneath the English Channel.^[5][2] Since opening, the tunnel has facilitated over 300 million passenger crossings and 60 million vehicle transits as of 2020, transforming the local landscape into one of Europe's largest land-travel complexes, spanning 650 hectares with a 30-kilometer perimeter.^[5][2] Geographically, Coquelles occupies fertile plains ideal for cultivating cereals, beets, and chicory, situated near the coastal cliffs of Blanc-Nez in the Opal Coast area.^[5] Its economy is heavily influenced by tourism and cross-border trade, hosting around 300 enterprises and employing approximately 6,000 people, bolstered by major commercial developments such as the Cité Europe shopping center, opened in 1995 with 119 stores, 25 restaurants, and 12 cinemas attracting 6 million visitors annually, and the Channel Outlet Store, established in 2003 with 55 shops drawing 1.5 million visitors per year.^[5][6] The commune's population has more than doubled since 1968, growing from 1,158 to 2,557 by 2018, reflecting its evolution from a rural settlement to a key hub for international travel and commerce.^[5][3] Beyond infrastructure, Coquelles offers modern amenities including sports facilities like three football fields, a cultural auditorium, and the Clinique des 2 Caps hospital with 90 surgical beds, supporting a vibrant community life.^[5]

Geography

Location and borders

Coquelles is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department within the Hauts-de-France region of northern France. Its central geographical coordinates are 50.935°N, 1.800°E. The commune lies approximately 5 km southwest of Calais city center and is integrated into the Communauté d'agglomération Grand Calais Terres et Mers, which encompasses the broader Calais urban area. This positioning places Coquelles in close proximity to major transportation hubs, including the Eurotunnel Calais Terminal located on its territory. The commune shares borders with Calais to the north, Sangatte to the west, Fréthun to the east, and Peuplingues, Coulogne, and Hames-Boucres to the south. These boundaries reflect Coquelles' role as a suburban extension of the Calais metropolitan zone, with direct access to coastal features and cross-border infrastructure. Additionally, Coquelles incorporates the smaller hamlet of Vieille Coquelles, a historic rural settlement within its administrative limits. From a broader regional perspective, Coquelles is situated about 100 km northwest of Lille and 300 km north of Paris, facilitating its connections to key economic and cultural centers in northern France.

Topography and climate

Coquelles covers an area of 8.77 square kilometers, encompassing a landscape that transitions from coastal lowlands to gently elevated interior terrain.^[7] The commune's elevation ranges from a minimum of approximately 2.5 meters to a maximum of 53 meters, with an average altitude of approximately 27 meters; the higher ground is concentrated in the southern and eastern interior, forming subtle hills amid otherwise flat to undulating plains characteristic of the Boulonnais region.^[7][8] This topography reflects the geological influence of chalky plateaus and marine deposits, contributing to fertile soils but also exposing the area to erosion and coastal dynamics.^[8] The hydrography of Coquelles is limited, with no major rivers traversing the commune, though it lies within the broader network of the wateringues—a reclaimed polder landscape featuring canals and drainage systems.^[9] The area is significantly influenced by adjacent coastal marshes and the proximity of the English Channel, which shapes local water management through dikes and pumping stations to prevent inundation from tidal surges and stormwater.^[10] Coquelles experiences an oceanic climate classified as Köppen Cfb, marked by mild, wet conditions year-round due to its coastal position. Winters are temperate with average temperatures ranging from 3°C to 6°C, while summers remain cool at 17°C to 20°C, avoiding extremes typical of continental interiors. Annual precipitation averages around 800 mm, distributed fairly evenly but peaking in autumn, with the region prone to persistent coastal winds exceeding 30 km/h and occasional flooding from storm surges.^[11] Land use in Coquelles blends agricultural fields, which dominate the rural interior with fertile loamy and chalky soils supporting arable farming, alongside expanding urban development and designated infrastructure zones near the coast.^[8] This mix reflects the commune's role in the Calais urban area, balancing preserved farmland with built environments and transport-related facilities.^[3]

History

Medieval and early modern period

Coquelles, situated in the broader Caletum region of Roman Gaul, experienced early influences from the Roman period, though no direct archaeological remains from Gaulish, Roman, or Frankish times have been identified in the area due to repeated invasions and environmental changes.^[12] The name Coquelles may derive from Latin roots associated with lime production or a Roman road, reflecting the region's integration into Roman trade and infrastructure networks near the ancient port of Caletum, centered around modern Calais.^[5] By the Middle Ages, the settlement had evolved into a small agricultural village within the County of Flanders, characterized by feudal land management and local lordships, with no evidence of significant fishing activities despite its proximity to the coast.^[5] The first historical mention of Coquelles appears as "Qualquella" in 1145 records, with subsequent variations including Calquella, Galewilla, and Kalquilla, indicating its emergence as a distinct parish near Calais.^[5] During the 12th and 13th centuries, the village was governed by local lords, such as Eustache de Kalquella in 1183 and Manassès de Coquelles in 1223, who resided at a castle site now identified at Ferme Fournier and made donations to nearby abbeys, underscoring its role in regional feudal and ecclesiastical networks.^[5] The village's fortunes shifted dramatically following the Battle of Crécy in 1346, which enabled English forces under Edward III to besiege and capture Calais in August 1347, incorporating Coquelles into the Pale of Calais—a fortified English enclave in northern France.^[5] This English occupation, lasting from 1347 to 1558, led to the dispossession and disappearance of Coquelles' seigneurial families, including those of La Chaussée and Axlas, while the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 formally ceded the area to English control, fostering limited trade benefits but primarily imposing fortifications and military burdens on the local agricultural economy.^[5] After the French Siege of Calais in 1558, led by François de Guise, Coquelles returned to French sovereignty as part of the reconquered Calaisis region, though the village lay devastated with its castle destroyed and lands redistributed to French nobles, such as Jean d’Estrées.^[5] Integration into French administration emphasized agricultural recovery and minor cross-Channel trade, with the population estimated at around 300 inhabitants by 1600, reflecting gradual stabilization amid ongoing Anglo-French tensions.^[5] The early modern period saw Coquelles remain a peripheral rural parish, involved peripherally in regional conflicts like the later phases of the Italian Wars, but primarily focused on subsistence farming rather than broader economic or military roles.^[5]

19th and 20th centuries

During the 19th century, Coquelles remained primarily agricultural, with fertile lands supporting the cultivation of cereals, beets, and chicory, contributing to the broader economic expansion in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, where textile industries flourished.^[5] Residents increasingly sought employment in nearby Calais, engaging in textile-related work such as tulle cutting—performed largely by women—and silk production, which tied the commune to the regional boom in lace and fabric manufacturing centered in Calais since the early 1800s.^[5][13] This integration into the textile sector provided supplementary income amid the commune's rural economy, though large-scale mills did not develop locally. By the early 20th century, small industrial activities emerged, including two chicory drying facilities and a cement factory established between 1923 and 1924 at Calimottes, on the border with Sangatte; the village was also electrified in 1925, facilitating modest modernization.^[5] World War I had limited direct military impact on Coquelles, as the commune lay behind Allied lines and served as part of the rear base for British forces, with command posts in nearby Fréthun and Coulogne supporting logistics through the vital port of Calais.^[14] However, the conflict strained the local economy through labor shortages, as many men were conscripted, leaving agricultural and textile work understaffed and disrupting regional supply chains tied to the Ypres Salient battles.^[15] The outbreak of World War II brought severe hardship, with German forces occupying Coquelles from 1940 to 1944 as part of the fortified defensive perimeter around Calais during the Siege of Calais in May–June 1940.^[16] Under occupation, the commune endured restrictions, requisitions, and the broader hardships of the "zone interdite" in northern France, where Nazi control was particularly harsh.^[17] Liberation came in late September 1944 during Operation Undergo, when Canadian troops from the 3rd Infantry Division advanced on the Calais area, capturing fortifications and forcing German surrender by September 30; Coquelles, adjacent to the port, was freed around the same time by these forces.^[18][19] Postwar recovery in Coquelles focused on rebuilding war-damaged infrastructure and farms, funded by reparations for damages sustained during the occupation.^[20] The local church of the Assumption was reconstructed in the late 1940s, exemplifying the communal efforts to restore essential structures.^[21] The economy shifted toward consolidated agriculture—emphasizing cereals and beets—alongside small-scale industries like the existing cement operations, reflecting a return to rural stability amid regional reconstruction initiatives that lasted into the 1950s.^[5][22]

Channel Tunnel construction and opening

The concept of a fixed link across the English Channel was first proposed in 1802 by French mining engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier, though earlier ideas had circulated since the 1750s.^[23] Formal approval came with the Treaty of Canterbury, signed on February 12, 1986, by the United Kingdom and France, which authorized a rail tunnel and established the legal framework for private financing and operation.^[24] In January 1986, prior to the treaty's ratification, the Eurotunnel consortium—formed by the British Channel Tunnel Group and the French France-Manche group—was selected to build and manage the project under a 55-year concession, marking a shift from earlier government-backed schemes.^[24] Construction began in earnest in 1988 after preparatory site works, with tunneling operations starting from both the UK portal near Folkestone and the French portal at Sangatte, near Coquelles.^[25] The French terminal was developed on approximately 700 hectares of former farmland in the Coquelles plateau, requiring the acquisition and repurposing of agricultural land to accommodate rail infrastructure, customs facilities, and shuttle loading areas.^[24] Over the six-year build, around 13,000 workers from both nations contributed, operating 11 massive tunnel boring machines—six launched from the UK and five from France—to excavate the parallel rail tunnels and service tunnel through chalk marl bedrock.^[26][25] The total tunnel length reached 50.5 kilometers, including 37.9 kilometers beneath the seabed, making it the world's longest undersea rail connection at the time.^[25] The project cost approximately £10 billion upon completion in May 1994, more than double the original £4.65 billion estimate due to geological challenges, labor disputes, and design adjustments.^[27][25] Environmental mitigations for the Coquelles site included processing excavated chalk into a slurry mixed with seawater, which was then pumped inland and contained behind a 37-meter-high containment dam to prevent erosion and flooding of surrounding farms.^[25] The Channel Tunnel was inaugurated on May 6, 1994, in dual ceremonies at the Folkestone and Coquelles terminals, where Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand rode a special train through the link, symbolizing Anglo-French reconciliation.^[28][29] Initial freight services commenced in June 1994, followed by the first public vehicle shuttle services in December 1994, allowing vehicles and high-speed trains to traverse the route.^[30] The project profoundly altered Coquelles' landscape, introducing expansive terminal complexes that integrated with local topography while preserving elements like the T4 Virginie boring machine, now displayed as a monument on a roundabout near the site to honor the engineering feat.^[31]

Demographics

Population trends

The population of Coquelles has experienced consistent growth since the mid-20th century, reflecting broader regional demographic shifts in northern France. According to official census data from the Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (INSEE), the commune recorded 1,158 inhabitants in 1968, a figure that rose to 2,370 by 1999 and reached 2,625 in 2022, representing an overall increase of approximately 127% over this period.^[1] This expansion has resulted in a population density of 299 inhabitants per square kilometer as of 2022, up from 132 per square kilometer in 1968, indicating a densification consistent with peri-urban development near Calais.^[1] Key periods of acceleration include a sharp rise from 1,248 in 1975 to 2,081 in 1982 (an annual growth rate of 7.5%), followed by more moderate but steady increases post-1990, with annual rates ranging from 0.8% to 1.1% in recent decades.^[1] These trends are driven primarily by an influx of workers tied to Channel Tunnel-related employment opportunities during its construction (1988–1994) and subsequent operations, alongside regional migration from surrounding areas in Hauts-de-France seeking affordable housing and proximity to Calais.^[32] Within the commune, there is no significant urban-rural divide, as Coquelles remains a cohesive rural-periurban entity without distinct internal population disparities.^[1] Looking ahead, population projections suggest stability or a slight increase, with estimates reaching around 2,689 inhabitants by 2025 based on recent growth trajectories.^[33] This outlook aligns with an aging demographic profile, where the proportion of residents aged 75 and older rose to 13.6% in 2022 from 7.9% in 2011, a pattern common to rural areas in Hauts-de-France amid national trends of increasing longevity and lower birth rates.^[1][34]

Socio-economic profile

Coquelles exhibits a balanced gender distribution, with women comprising 53.3% of the population and men 46.7% as of 2022.^[1] The age structure reflects an aging community, with approximately 13.9% under 15 years, 46.3% between 15 and 59 years, and 39.8% aged 60 and over, resulting in a median age of around 48 years.^[1] This distribution indicates a higher proportion of older residents compared to the national average, though the working-age group (15-64 years) accounts for about 55% of the population, supported by employment opportunities in local infrastructure.^[1] Education in Coquelles is facilitated by local primary schools, such as the École Primaire in Vieille Coquelles, with secondary education accessed through nearby lycées in Calais. Among residents aged 15 and older, 24.4% hold no diploma, while 29.1% have attained higher education qualifications, aligning with regional patterns in Hauts-de-France.^[1] The literacy rate stands near 99%, consistent with national figures for France.^[35] The average household income in Coquelles, measured as median income per consumption unit, was €24,230 in 2021, below the national median but typical for the Pas-de-Calais department.^[1] Employment rates show 60.3% of the working-age population (15-64 years) employed, with an unemployment rate of 12.2% in 2022, higher than the national average of 7.3% but influenced by regional economic factors including tourism and cross-border activities.^[1][36] The community is predominantly composed of French nationals, reflecting the department's overall immigrant share of approximately 2.6%, with small groups from EU countries and the UK drawn by proximity to the Channel Tunnel and related employment.^[37] No major ethnic enclaves exist, fostering a cohesive local demographic tied to cross-Channel connectivity.^[1]

Government and politics

Local administration

Coquelles operates as a commune under French local government law, featuring an elected municipal council comprising 23 members who serve six-year terms and oversee local decision-making. The council, led by the mayor, handles core administrative functions including the adoption of the annual budget and urban planning policies. This structure aligns with national regulations for communes of its population size, 2,625 residents as of 2022.^[38][3] The municipal administration manages essential services such as local road maintenance, waste collection with mandatory selective sorting, primary education through the Groupe Scolaire Abel Mobailly, and zoning via the Plan Local d'Urbanisme (PLU). These responsibilities ensure day-to-day operations, including infrastructure upkeep and environmental compliance, with the commune's annual budget typically ranging from €5 to €7 million, covering operational revenues around €5.3 million and expenses near €4.8 million in recent years. For instance, in 2022, investments totaled over €3 million, focusing on development projects.^{[5][39][8][40][41]} As part of the Communauté d'agglomération Grand Calais Terres et Mers, Coquelles collaborates with 13 other nearby communes on shared services, including water supply, economic development zones, and waste processing facilities, enhancing efficiency across the 100,257-resident agglomeration as of 2023. This intercommunal framework, established in 2017, allocates two seats to Coquelles on the community council for coordinated regional initiatives. The commune's official coat of arms, adopted to reflect its heritage, features a red field with a silver saltire bearing a central blue roundel and a golden scallop shell at the base, symbolizing local maritime ties.^{[42][43][44][45]}

Mayors and political history

Coquelles has held municipal elections every six years since 2014, aligning with the standard term length for French communes of its size, though earlier cycles varied slightly post-World War II. Voter turnout in recent elections has fluctuated, reaching 69.45% in 2014 when incumbent mayor Michel Hamy secured a strong majority with 74.19% of votes on his local list, but dropping to approximately 40% in 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.^[46][47] Local politics in Coquelles often reflect broader center-right tendencies in the Pas-de-Calais region, with mayoral candidates typically running on independent or community-focused lists rather than national party affiliations.^[48] The longest-serving mayor in Coquelles' history was Abel Mobailly, a farmer who held office from October 1940 to July 1975, spanning 35 years and including the critical post-World War II reconstruction period. Under Mobailly's tenure, the commune addressed war damages through efforts like reallocating compensation for destroyed infrastructure between 1950 and 1953, focusing on rebuilding housing and public facilities in a region heavily impacted by occupation and liberation battles.^[49][20] Succeeding him was Michel Grassien from 1975 to 1983, followed by Pierre Crespel from 1983 to 1995, Astrid Crespel from June 1995 to May 2003, and Michel Selingue from June 2003 to June 2006.^[5] The construction and opening of the Channel Tunnel profoundly shaped local politics in the 1980s and 1990s, sparking debates over land use and expropriations for the Coquelles terminal site. Local officials, including during Crespel's mayoralty, navigated tensions between economic opportunities from the project and concerns about agricultural land conversion and environmental impacts, influencing zoning decisions and community consultations as outlined in regional planning documents.^[50][51] Since 2006, Michel Hamy has served as mayor, re-elected in 2020 for a term ending in 2026 on a local list emphasizing sustainable development and infrastructure ties to the tunnel. In October 2025, Hamy announced his candidacy for re-election in the 2026 municipal elections.^[52][5][53]

Economy

Traditional sectors

Coquelles' traditional economy has historically revolved around agriculture, with farms in Vieille Coquelles focusing on the production of cereals, vegetables, and livestock.^[54] The broader Calaisis region, encompassing Coquelles, features extensive agricultural land comprising approximately 85% of its territory, much of it arable and dedicated to these activities.^[54] Local examples include Ferme Fournier, a longstanding farm in the old village that exemplifies this rural heritage.^[5] In the 19th century, light industry emerged in the Pas-de-Calais department, including small-scale manufacturing near Coquelles, though such activities remained limited and have since diminished. Today, small-scale manufacturing persists alongside agriculture, with 13 industrial establishments providing 116 jobs in 2022.^[55] The sector employs only 6 people directly in agriculture within Coquelles as of 2022, reflecting its marginal role amid broader economic shifts.^[55] Traditional sectors face ongoing challenges from urbanization, including the Channel Tunnel's construction, which acquired 1,186 acres (approximately 480 hectares) of cultivated agricultural land in Coquelles for the terminal and related infrastructure, disrupting local farming and converting farmland permanently.^[56] In response to such pressures and national trends, recent years have seen a gradual shift toward organic practices in French agriculture, emphasizing sustainable methods to preserve viable operations.^[57]

Modern developments and tourism

The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 has profoundly shaped Coquelles' modern economy, primarily through direct and indirect employment opportunities provided by Eurotunnel operations.^[58] This presence generates economic activity for the local economy, boosting sectors like logistics and services through increased cross-Channel trade and passenger flows, with overall Eurotunnel revenue reaching €1.166 billion in 2024.^[58][59] A key driver of retail growth is the Cité Europe shopping centre, strategically located adjacent to the tunnel terminal. Inaugurated on March 21, 1995, the centre features 119 stores, including fashion outlets, electronics retailers, and a large Carrefour hypermarket, catering to both French residents and international shoppers.^[6] It attracts around 6 million visitors annually, predominantly from the UK and France, who benefit from tax-free shopping and proximity to the tunnel for seamless cross-border trips.^[6] This influx has solidified Coquelles as a retail hub, with the centre contributing significantly to local service sector revenues. Hospitality has expanded to accommodate the steady stream of tunnel users, with more than 10 hotels operating in Coquelles, many situated near the terminal to serve travelers on layovers or short stops. Establishments such as the Holiday Inn Calais-Coquelles and B&B Hôtel Calais Terminal provide convenient lodging with amenities like free parking and shuttle access, supporting the needs of cross-Channel commuters and tourists. Tourism-related activities, including shopping and brief stays, form part of the broader Channel Tunnel-induced growth. Looking ahead, expansion plans for logistics parks, such as the Terrasses de Coquelles Business Park and MG Park Calais, aim to further diversify the economy by attracting international firms in warehousing and distribution. These developments, supported by regional investment initiatives, are expected to enhance connectivity and create additional jobs. The tunnel's influence has also helped reduce unemployment; in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, rates fell from around 15% in the late 1990s to lower levels today, with the Pas-de-Calais department recording 8.3% in 2022.^[60][36]

Infrastructure and transport

Road and local transport

Coquelles is primarily accessed via the A16 autoroute, a major toll road that forms part of the European route E402, connecting the commune directly to Calais and broader northern France. Exit 42 on the A16 provides the main entry point to the Eurotunnel Calais Terminal, facilitating seamless access for cross-Channel traffic. Local connectivity relies on departmental roads such as the D210, which links Coquelles to central Calais approximately 6 kilometers away, supporting daily commutes and regional travel. The commune's internal road network spans approximately 50 kilometers, encompassing paved streets and service roads within the terminal area designed for high-volume vehicle handling.^[61][62][63] Public transport in Coquelles centers on bus services operated by the Imag'in Calais Opale Bus network (SITAC), which offers free rides across 13 lines serving the urban area, including connections to Calais. Line 3, for instance, runs from commercial zones in Coquelles, such as Centre Commercial La Française, to key Calais destinations like the city center and port area, with services departing hourly and covering about 22 kilometers in roughly 60 minutes. Cyclists benefit from dedicated bike paths, including the Coquelles Green Belt and coastal routes along the Opal Coast that extend toward Calais Beach, promoting eco-friendly local mobility. Unlike larger cities in the region, Coquelles lacks metro or tram systems, relying instead on these bus and cycling options for internal and short-distance travel.^[64][65] Traffic near the Eurotunnel terminal experiences significant volume, with LeShuttle services transporting 2.20 million passenger vehicles and 1.20 million freight trucks in 2024 through Coquelles, totaling about 3.40 million vehicles. The A16 imposes tolls managed by SANEF, with rates varying by vehicle class and distance; for example, a standard car journey from Calais to the terminal incurs minimal fees due to the short segment, but full autoroute sections can cost €10–€20. These roads play a vital role in the local economy by enabling efficient freight and tourism flows.^[59][66][67] Post-Brexit adjustments in 2021 prompted EU-funded enhancements to Coquelles' road infrastructure, focusing on border control facilities to improve cross-border vehicle flow at the terminal. These developments, supported by the Connecting Europe Facility, included upgrades to customs processing areas and access lanes to reduce congestion amid new trade protocols.^[68][69]

Channel Tunnel and international links

The Eurotunnel Calais Terminal, located in Coquelles, serves as the French endpoint for the Channel Tunnel and is one of Europe's largest land-travel complexes, spanning 650 hectares with a 30-km perimeter. This extensive facility handles both Le Shuttle services for road vehicles, including cars, coaches, and trucks, and Eurostar high-speed passenger trains, facilitating seamless cross-Channel travel. The terminal features dedicated infrastructure such as loading platforms, customs and immigration areas, and passenger amenities to manage high volumes of traffic efficiently.^[2] Operations at the terminal run 24/7, providing frequent shuttles with up to four departures per hour during peak times, and the undersea journey to Folkestone takes approximately 35 minutes. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Channel Tunnel averaged around 20 million passengers annually across Le Shuttle and Eurostar services, alongside roughly 2.5 million vehicles transported via Le Shuttle; these figures reflect a pre-2020 average, with Le Shuttle alone carrying about 2.6 million passenger vehicles in 2019. In 2024, Eurostar carried a record 19.5 million passengers, up 5% from 2023.^[70][71][72] From Coquelles, the terminal connects directly to the LGV Nord high-speed rail line, enabling Eurostar trains to reach Paris in about 1.5 hours, while Le Shuttle vehicles link to the A16 and A26 motorways for broader European access. Overall travel from the terminal to London via Eurostar totals around 2 hours, integrating with UK motorways like the M20 from Folkestone. These connections enhance continental mobility, with the tunnel forming a critical artery for passengers and freight alike.^[73] Post-Brexit, the Channel Tunnel has emerged as a vital trade route, handling approximately 25% of UK-EU commerce and supporting resilient supply chains despite new border protocols. Security features include juxtaposed UK and French border controls at the Coquelles terminal, with dedicated customs zones for inspections, a 40-km perimeter fence, infrared detectors, and extensive CCTV coverage to ensure safe passage. Environmentally, Eurotunnel has implemented upgrades such as energy-efficient operations and low-emission shuttles, reducing the carbon footprint by over 20% since 2006 and emitting 52 times less CO2 per crossing compared to ferries.^{[71][74][75][66]}