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Dale (landform)
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A dale is a valley, especially an open, gently-sloping ground between low hills with a stream flowing through it.[1] It is used most frequently in Yorkshire and the Southern Uplands of Scotland; the term "fell" commonly refers to mountains or hills that flank a dale. As with many other words, dale was preserved by Viking influence in Northern England.[1]
It appears in various contexts, such as “up hill and down dale”, “over every hill and dale”, and “up all hills, down all dales”.
Etymology
[edit]
Look up dale in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The word dale comes from the Old English word dæl,[2] from which the word "dell" also derived. It is related to Old Norse word dalr (and the modern Icelandic word dalur, etc.), which may have influenced its survival in northern England.[3][1] The Germanic origin is assumed to be *dala-. Dal- in various combinations is common in placenames in Norway. Modern English valley and French vallée are claimed to be related to dale.[4][5] A distant relative of dale is currency unit dollar, stemming from German thaler or daler, short for Joachimsthaler coins manufactured in the town of Joachimsthal in Bohemia.[6]
The word is perhaps related to Welsh dol (meadow, pasture, valley), Russian dol (valley, reverse side) and Serbian/Croatian/Bulgarian/Russian dolina (basin, doline is a geological term for certain surface depressions in karst areas). The uses are semantic equivalents to many words and phrases, suggesting a common Indo-European affinity. Vale and thalweg are also related.
| Word/phrase | Language |
|---|---|
| dal | Afrikaans/Dutch |
| dal | Chechen |
| Tal (prior spelling: Thal), Delle | German |
| dal | Norwegian/Swedish/Danish |
| даліна (dalina) | Belarusian |
| долина (dolina) | Serbian/Croatian/Bulgarian/Russian/Ukrainian |
| vale, dolină | Romanian |
| dolec, dolek | Slovenian |
| údolí, důl | Czech |
| dolina | Polish |
| údolie, dolina | Slovak |
| دره (dære) | Persian |
| دۆڵ (doll) | Kurdish |
Uses
[edit]The following are several examples of major dales that have the name dale. The river name is usually appended with "-dale". There are also many smaller dales; this is not an exhaustive list (see dale (place name element) for more).
- Airedale (Yorkshire)
- Annandale (Scottish Lowlands)
- Coquetdale (Northumberland)
- Ennerdale (Cumberland)
- Eskdale (Cumberland)
- Eskdale (Scottish Lowlands)
- Eskdale (Yorkshire)
- Lauderdale (Scottish Lowlands)
- Lonsdale or Lunesdale (Lancashire-Westmorland)
- Rochdale (Greater Manchester)
- Teesdale (Durham)
- Tweeddale (Scottish Lowlands)
- Tynedale (Northumberland)
- Weardale (County Durham and Yorkshire)
- Wensleydale or Yoredale (Yorkshire)
- Yorkshire Dales
The name Wuppertal (North Rhine-Westphalia) is similar in form.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c "dale". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. Retrieved 18 September 2024.
- ^ DK illustrated Oxford dictionary. Oslo: Teknologisk forl. 1998. ISBN 8251205506.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary
- ^ Bjorvand, Harald (2000). Våre arveord. Oslo: Instituttet for sammenlignende kulturforskning. ISBN 8270993190.
- ^ De Caprona, Y. (2013). Norsk etymologisk ordbok: tematisk ordnet. Oslo, Kagge.
- ^ Falk, Hjalmar (1991). Etymologisk ordbog over det norske og det danske sprog. Oslo: Bjørn Ringstrøms antikvariat. ISBN 8252525482.
Dale (landform)
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Introduction
Definition
A dale is a broad, open valley characterized by gently sloping sides, typically situated between low hills and often containing a stream or river that runs along its length. This landform features a relatively flat or undulating floor, distinguishing it as a type of wide, accessible valley in geomorphic terms.[8][1] Key attributes of dales include their openness, which provides expansive vistas, and gentle gradients on the valley sides, making them ideal for pastoral landscapes and agricultural use. These features contribute to their association with serene, rolling terrain suitable for human settlement and farming. Dales can extend for varying lengths, often tens of kilometers, as seen in examples like Wensleydale.[9] Unlike narrower valleys such as gorges, which are deep V-shaped features with steep rocky slopes carved by water, or steeper canyons with very steep sides, dales have flatter floors that facilitate activities like grazing and transportation.[10][11] The term "dale" originates from Old English "dæl," denoting a valley, and is primarily employed in Northern England, especially the Yorkshire Dales, though it applies to analogous broad valleys worldwide.[8][2]Etymology
The term "dale" originates from Old English dæl, denoting a "vale, valley, or gorge," which itself derives from Proto-Germanic *dalaz, meaning "valley," possibly tracing back to Proto-Indo-European *dhel- ("a hollow").[3] This root reflects a broad conceptualization of low-lying terrain in early Germanic languages.[12] Cognates of "dale" appear across Germanic languages, including Dutch dal, German Tal, Swedish dal, and Old Norse dalr, all referring to valleys or low-lying areas between hills.[3] These related terms underscore a shared linguistic heritage emphasizing enclosed or depressed landforms.[13] In Middle English, the word evolved as dale, commonly used to describe broad valleys, with its prominence in Northern English dialects emerging by the 14th century due to the influence of Scandinavian settlers during the Viking Age, who reinforced the term through place names and everyday usage.[3][14] Over time, the semantics of "dale" shifted in British English from a general term for any valley to a more specific connotation of open, gently sloping lowlands often fed by streams, distinguishing it from steeper or narrower formations.[3] This refinement highlights its adaptation to describe particular topographical features in regional contexts.[12]Physical Characteristics
Topography
Dales exhibit a terrain profile characterized by gently undulating valley floors flanked by hills with elevation differences typically ranging from 200 to 500 meters or more, creating a landscape of relative accessibility and openness. In northern England, such as the Yorkshire Dales, the valley sides often display stepped profiles formed by alternating layers of resistant limestones and softer shales or sandstones, contributing to a series of moderate slopes that rise gradually from the floor. Representative cross-sections reveal broad, U-shaped or flat-bottomed forms, emphasizing the expansive nature of these features.[5][15] In terms of scale and dimensions, dales vary but commonly range from widths of approximately 1 to 5 kilometers and lengths extending up to 40 kilometers, as seen in examples like Wensleydale, which spans about 40 kilometers from its upper reaches to the lowland exit. This sizing allows for long-distance visibility across the valley, enhancing the sense of spaciousness in the terrain. The openness facilitates integration with surrounding higher landforms, such as moorlands or fells exceeding 700 meters in elevation, where heather-covered plateaus border the valley edges. Valley floors are typically covered in loamy or clayey soils derived from limestone, supporting fertile alluvial deposits suitable for pasture.[15][5] Dales are readily identified in topographic surveys through contour lines that depict broad, shallow depressions with widely spaced intervals indicating low-gradient floors and moderate side slopes. Such mapping highlights the contrast between the enclosed valleys and adjacent uplands, as documented in national landscape character assessments and geological overviews. For instance, the stepped topography is evident in profiles of dales like Wharfedale, where contours trace the gentle rises of enclosing hills.[15][16]Hydrology
Dales typically feature perennial streams or rivers that flow longitudinally along the valley floor, facilitating efficient water transport through the landform. These watercourses, such as the River Wharfe in the Yorkshire Dales, are often narrower in their upper reaches, gradually widening downstream, and display meandering patterns due to the gentle topography of the valley base.[17][18] The low gradients of these streams, typically around 0.1% overall (or approximately 1 meter per kilometer), promote slower flow velocities and sediment deposition, contributing to the development of sinuous channels.[17][19] Drainage in dales follows dendritic patterns, where tributaries originate from the surrounding hills and converge into the main longitudinal channel, forming a branching network that efficiently collects surface runoff.[16] This configuration can lead to seasonal flooding potential, particularly during intense rainfall events, as water from impermeable underlying rocks promotes rapid surface runoff into the valley.[20] Flash floods, such as those recorded in Swaledale, highlight this vulnerability, with a month's rain falling in hours causing sudden rises in river levels.[21] Along these watercourses, associated features include floodplain meadows and occasional marshes, which form due to periodic inundation and sediment accumulation on the valley floor. Groundwater seepage further influences moisture levels on the valley floor, maintaining saturated conditions that support lush vegetation in low-lying areas.[22] Hydrologically, these systems sustain riparian zones characterized by vegetation adapted to wet conditions, such as water crowfoot and marsh marigold, which thrive in the moist, nutrient-rich environments along stream banks.[18] These zones enhance biodiversity by providing habitats for aquatic species like brown trout and supporting overall ecosystem stability through water filtration and flood attenuation.[22]Geological Formation
Erosional Processes
Dales are primarily shaped by fluvial erosion, where rivers incise downward through downcutting and widen valleys via lateral erosion over extended periods. Downcutting occurs as streams erode the valley floor, driven by the river's ability to transport sediment and maintain a graded profile in response to base level changes. Lateral erosion expands the valley sides, creating broader, open forms characteristic of dales. The key mechanisms include hydraulic action, where the force of moving water dislodges particles from the bed and banks; abrasion, in which sediment-laden water scours the channel like sandpaper; and corrosion, the chemical dissolution of rock surfaces by water, particularly effective in soluble substrates such as the Carboniferous limestone underlying many dales, where karstic dissolution by acidic rainwater further enhances valley widening.[5] These processes operate over millennia, progressively modifying pre-existing topography into the gentle, U-shaped profiles seen in dales. Weathering on surrounding hillsides complements fluvial action by breaking down bedrock and regolith, supplying sediment to streams that enhances their erosive capacity. Physical weathering, such as freeze-thaw cycles, fragments rocks into transportable sizes, while chemical weathering dissolves minerals, weakening slopes and contributing fine particles. This sediment input leads to periodic aggradation on valley floors, where deposition temporarily builds up material before renewed incision exposes older surfaces. In post-glacial settings, these contributions have been prominent since the retreat of ice sheets approximately 15,000–17,000 years ago, allowing rivers to dominate landscape evolution without overriding glacial legacies.[6] Erosion rates in such environments typically range from 0.003 to 0.012 mm per year for basin-averaged erosion based on cosmogenic nuclide dating, though overall denudation including chemical processes and shale erosion may reach 0.1 mm per year, with rates varying with lithology and discharge.[23][6] These modest but persistent rates accumulate significant relief over Holocene timescales, with incision depths reaching tens of meters in many dales. Feedback loops further stabilize the landform: as erosion bevels slopes to gentler angles, reduced gradient limits further mass wasting and sediment delivery, promoting a balanced, open valley morphology that resists rapid change. Streams thus act as primary erosive agents, refining hydrological networks inherited from earlier phases.Glacial Influence
Dales in upland regions, particularly in the United Kingdom, owe much of their characteristic broad, steep-sided profiles to Pleistocene glaciation, where advancing ice sheets profoundly modified pre-existing fluvial valleys. During the Last Glacial Maximum around 20,000 years ago, as part of the Devensian glaciation (approximately 110,000 to 11,700 years ago), thick ice sheets covered the Pennines and Yorkshire Dales, eroding bedrock through abrasion and plucking to create overdeepened basins and U-shaped cross-sections.[6][24] This glacial overdeepening in valleys like Ribblesdale and Kingsdale deepened floors by several meters in faster-flowing ice corridors, while lateral erosion widened and straightened the profiles, transforming narrower V-shaped river valleys into the broader troughs observed today.[25] As ice sheets retreated after the Last Glacial Maximum, meltwater channels further incised the landscape, contributing to gorge formation and initial post-glacial drainage patterns in areas like Chapel-le-Dale. Pre-Devensian glaciations, such as the Anglian (around 450,000 years ago), initiated much of this modification, with subsequent Devensian advances providing final polishing and minor additional deepening of a few meters in dales like Kingsdale. In non-glaciated margins and during interstadials, periglacial processes amplified valley broadening through frost action, which shattered bedrock along joints to produce angular debris, and solifluction, involving the slow downslope movement of saturated soil and regolith on permafrost-affected slopes. These effects were particularly evident in the Pennines, where solifluction sheets and lobes widened valley sides under mean annual temperatures below -2°C during the Late Devensian (around 18,000 to 15,000 years ago).[26] Geological evidence of this glacial legacy abounds in many dales, including terminal and lateral moraines—such as those at Ribblehead and the lower end of Kingsdale—that mark former ice limits and impounded temporary lakes, erratic boulders transported from distant sources (e.g., Norber erratics from Silurian rocks deposited on Carboniferous limestone), and smoothed bedrock features like roches moutonnées indicating directional ice flow. Post-deglaciation around 17,000 years ago, fluvial processes assumed dominance, incising through glacial deposits and buried valleys, but the overarching U-shaped morphology and overdeepened profiles remain testament to ice action. This glacial influence is more pronounced in northern latitudes and high-relief areas like the Pennines, where multiple Pleistocene ice advances enhanced erosion compared to lower-relief southern regions.[6][26]Geographic Distribution
In the United Kingdom
Dales are most prevalent in northern and central England, particularly in the Pennines regions of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Cumbria, where they form a characteristic feature of the upland landscape. The Yorkshire Dales National Park, a key example, encompasses more than 20 individual dales and covers an area of 2,179 km², highlighting the extensive distribution of these landforms within protected upland areas.[27][28] Geologically, dales in the United Kingdom are predominantly developed in areas of Carboniferous limestone, such as the Great Scar Limestone, and overlain by Millstone Grit sandstones, which together create karst-influenced valleys through dissolution and erosion processes. These sedimentary rocks, formed 360–300 million years ago in tropical marine and deltaic environments, underlie much of the Pennine chain and eastern Cumbria, where faulting and uplift on blocks like the Askrigg Block have shaped the valley systems.[5][29] Regional variations exist across the dales, with those in the Lake District of Cumbria tending to be wetter and peatier due to higher rainfall and underlying volcanic and Silurian rocks that support boggy moorlands, in contrast to the drier, more limestone-dominated dales of the Pennines, which feature prominent karst pavements and pavements exposed by glaciation. Overall, dales cover thousands of square kilometers across upland Britain, contributing to the diverse topography of the northern English countryside.[30][31][32] Many dales benefit from protected status, including designation within national parks such as the Yorkshire Dales and Lake District, as well as Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty like the North Pennines and Nidderdale, which safeguard their geological and scenic value under UK conservation frameworks.[33][34]International Equivalents
In various languages, terms equivalent to "dale" denote broad, open valleys shaped by similar erosional processes, often tracing back to the Proto-Germanic *dalą, meaning a valley or hollow.[35] In Scandinavian countries, "dal" is commonly used for broad valleys of glacial-fluvial origin, paralleling the morphology of dales with their wide floors and gentle slopes carved by ice and meltwater. For instance, the Dalälven valley system in Sweden features extensive post-glacial deposits from ice recession during the late Pleistocene, where meltwater streams deposited sediments in a broad trough.[36] In Norway, "dal" describes similar U-shaped valleys formed primarily through glacial plucking and erosion, as seen in fjord-adjacent lowlands where ice sheets deepened and widened pre-existing fluvial channels. In Germanic regions beyond Scandinavia, equivalents like German "Tal" refer to valleys in upland areas, though these often exhibit steeper profiles due to tectonic influences. In the Alps, "Tal" denotes incisions in calcareous bedrock, such as those in the Northern Calcareous Alps, where Neogene and Quaternary glacial activity overdeepened valleys to depths exceeding 500 meters, creating broad inner gorges with hanging tributaries.[37] In the Black Forest, "Tal" applies to narrower, forested valleys like the Wiesental, shaped by periglacial processes and fluvial downcutting during interglacials, contrasting with the more open dales but sharing a post-glacial heritage.[38] Similarly, Dutch "dal" describes low-lying valleys in the Rhine system, where glacial outwash plains and meandering channels formed during the Weichselian glaciation, as evidenced by moraine ridges and sediment sequences in the deltaic foreland.[39] Such equivalents are prevalent in post-glacial landscapes across Europe and North America, particularly in latitudinal bands from 40° to 60°N, where Pleistocene ice sheets left U-shaped valleys and fluvio-glacial deposits covering millions of square kilometers.[40] In Europe, this includes the Scandinavian Shield and Alpine forelands, while in North America, it spans the Laurentide Ice Sheet's retreat areas from the Great Lakes to the Rocky Mountains, fostering comparable hydrological and topographic features.[41][42]Notable Examples
Yorkshire Dales
The Yorkshire Dales represent a prominent cluster of over 20 main valleys in North Yorkshire, England, carved through Carboniferous limestone uplands that form part of the Pennine chain.[43] These dales, including well-known examples such as Swaledale and Wensleydale, feature undulating terrain rising to the region's highest point at Whernside, which stands at 736 meters above sea level.[44] The landscape's valleys vary in character, from broad, U-shaped profiles in the south to narrower, more rugged incisions in the north, shaped by fluvial and glacial action over millennia.[45] Distinct karst features define the Yorkshire Dales, including dry valleys, limestone pavements, and dramatic waterfalls such as Aysgill Force near Hawes in Wensleydale.[46][47] The area, encompassing approximately 2,179 square kilometers within the National Park boundaries, is crisscrossed by around 8,000 kilometers of dry-stone walls, which delineate fields and reflect centuries of pastoral land management.[43][48] These walls, constructed without mortar from local limestone, not only serve as boundaries but also enhance the iconic patchwork scenery, supporting traditional sheep farming patterns across the valley floors and fells.[49] Ecologically, the Yorkshire Dales boast rich biodiversity, with limestone pavements hosting specialized flora in their grikes (fissures), species-rich hay meadows blooming with up to 120 varieties of wildflowers and grasses, and transitions to upland moorlands providing habitat for ground-nesting birds such as lapwings.[50][51] The region contains 72% of England's limestone pavement resource and 38% of its upland hay meadows, fostering a mosaic of habitats that support diverse invertebrates, mammals, and plants adapted to the calcareous soils.[52] Tourism in the Yorkshire Dales draws approximately 4.7 million visitors annually prior to 2020, attracted by the serene valleys and outdoor pursuits, with popular walking trails like the 130-kilometer Dales Way enhancing accessibility from Ilkley to Bowness-on-Windermere.[53][54] This influx underscores the dales' role as an archetypal landform example, balancing natural preservation with recreational value.[50]Other Dales
Beyond the Yorkshire Dales, several other UK valleys exemplify the dale landform, showcasing variations in topography and human modification. Arkengarthdale, located in the northern Yorkshire Dales near the Durham border, features rugged moorland terrain scarred by extensive lead mining operations that spanned over a millennium, with hushing techniques and spoil heaps altering the valley floor.[55] Langdale in the Lake District presents a classic U-shaped glacial valley, flanked by steep fells and dotted with tarns such as Blea Tarn and Stickle Tarn, which formed in corries during past glaciations.[56][57] Teesdale, traversing the Pennines in County Durham and North Yorkshire, is renowned for its cascade of waterfalls, including the dramatic High Force, where the River Tees plunges over hard whinstone rock into softer limestone, creating a series of stepped falls along the valley.[58] Internationally, dales appear in diverse settings, often under local terminologies akin to the English "dale." In Sweden's Jämtland region, forested valleys such as those in Vålådalen combine fertile lowlands with dense coniferous woodlands, supporting agriculture and hiking amid subarctic influences.[59] The Shenandoah Valley in the USA's Appalachian Mountains serves as a broader analog to UK dales, with its elongated rift valley of rolling farmland and ridges that played a pivotal role in the American Civil War as a Confederate supply corridor and site of key campaigns.[60] For further variety, Norway's Gudbrandsdalen exemplifies a long, glaciated Scandinavian valley with agricultural plains and mountain backdrops, while the Engadine in the Swiss Alps features narrower, high-elevation troughs amid granite peaks; additionally, France's Vallée d'Aspe in the Pyrenees offers a steep, forested Pyrenean dale with glacial origins. These examples highlight comparative traits in vegetation and scale that distinguish dales across regions. UK dales often support heather-dominated moors and limestone grasslands adapted to cooler, wetter climates, contrasting with the coniferous forests of spruce and pine prevalent in Scandinavian valleys like those in Jämtland.[61][62] Alpine equivalents, such as the Engadine, tend to be smaller in width—typically 5-10 km versus the broader 10-20 km of many UK dales—due to steeper surrounding gradients and more intense glacial scouring. True dales remain rare outside Europe, primarily constrained by climate; the landform's glacial and fluvial origins require temperate zones with sufficient moisture and past ice ages, limiting occurrences in arid deserts or tropical regions where erosion patterns favor canyons or broader basins instead.[63]Human Uses and Significance
Agriculture and Settlement
Dales have long supported pastoral farming, with sheep grazing predominant on the hillsides and hay production concentrated on the more fertile valley floors. This division of land use reflects the terrain's constraints, where upland slopes provide rough pasture for extensive grazing, while lower meadows yield winter fodder through traditional mowing and aftermath grazing practices.[64][65] Traditional field management includes lynchets—terraced slopes formed by long-term ploughing—which date back to prehistoric and medieval periods, enhancing arable potential on steeper ground.[66][64] Settlement in dales typically features scattered hamlets and isolated farms, adapted to the rugged landscape, with stone-built field barns serving as multifunctional structures for livestock shelter and hay storage. These patterns contribute to low population densities, averaging around 10 people per square kilometer in areas like the Yorkshire Dales National Park, due to the challenging topography limiting larger developments.[67][68][69] Historically, dales agriculture centered on dairy and wool production, with sheep providing wool for trade and cattle yielding milk for cheese like Wensleydale, sustaining local economies since medieval times. In modern contexts, shifts toward organic farming and agri-tourism have emerged, supported by UK government subsidies for upland areas, such as the Environmental Land Management schemes (ELMS), which reward sustainable farming on marginal land.[70][71][72] Farming faces challenges from soil infertility on slopes, where thin, acidic upland soils limit crop growth and necessitate reliance on nutrient-rich alluvial deposits in valley floors for intensive hay and grazing. Additionally, flood risks from meandering streams pose threats to lowland pastures, exacerbated by heavy rainfall in these regions. Streams also provide essential water for irrigation in drier periods.[73][74][75]Cultural Importance
Dales have long held a prominent place in British literature, particularly in works that evoke the rugged pastoral landscapes of northern England. The Brontë sisters, residing in Haworth near the Pennine moors adjacent to the Yorkshire Dales, drew inspiration from the surrounding valleys and hills for their novels, portraying the wild, isolating beauty of the region as a backdrop for themes of passion and hardship in Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë.[76] Similarly, James Herriot's semi-autobiographical veterinary stories, such as All Creatures Great and Small, are set amid the Yorkshire Dales, celebrating the daily lives of farmers and animals while romanticizing the rural idyll of valley communities and their resilient spirit.[77] These depictions have enduringly shaped perceptions of dales as symbols of timeless English countryside heritage. In folklore, dales are intertwined with tales of fairies, shepherds, and mystical rural life, reflecting the pastoral traditions of Dalesfolk. Legends from the Yorkshire Dales describe fairies dancing at sites like Janet's Foss, where Queen Janet and her sprites are said to inhabit a waterfall pool, weaving enchantments into the landscape.[78] Shepherds feature prominently in these stories, such as the tale of Gunda, a shepherdess whose flocks fall prey to a giant at Penhill, embodying the perils and harmonies of valley herding.[78] The term "dale" in place names persists as an evocation of this pastoral heritage, preserving Dalesfolk customs like communal livestock management and seasonal rhythms that define regional identity.[79] In modern media, dales symbolize the quintessential English rural escape, amplified by adaptations like the television series All Creatures Great and Small, which uses Yorkshire Dales locations to depict 1930s agricultural life and community bonds, reinforcing the valleys' cultural allure.[77] The establishment of the Yorkshire Dales National Park in 1954 further underscores this symbolism, protecting not only natural beauty but also cultural heritage through conservation efforts that honor traditional farming and folklore.[80] Dales contribute to Northern England's regional identity through festivals that celebrate pastoral legacies, such as the Swaledale Sheep Show at Tan Hill Inn, an annual event since 1954 that highlights hardy local breeds and fosters community ties to valley traditions.[81] These gatherings, alongside broader Dales events, maintain the intangible cultural value of dales as emblems of resilient rural life and collective heritage.[82]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dal%C4%85