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Eastern racer
Northern black racer
(Coluber constrictor constrictor)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Genus: Coluber
Linnaeus, 1758
Species:
C. constrictor
Binomial name
Coluber constrictor
Synonyms[2][3]
List

The eastern racer, or North American racer (Coluber constrictor), is a species of nonvenomous snake in the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae. The species is native to North America and Central America. Eleven subspecies, including the nominotypical subspecies, are recognized, which as a group are commonly referred to as the eastern racers. The species is monotypic in the genus Coluber.

Geographic range

[edit]

Coluber constrictor is found throughout much of the United States, on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, but it also ranges north into Canada and south into Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize.

Subspecies

[edit]
Image Subspecies Common name
Coluber constrictor anthicus

(Cope, 1862)

buttermilk racer
Coluber constrictor constrictor

Linnaeus, 1758

northern black racer
Coluber constrictor etheridgei

Wilson, 1970

tan racer
Coluber constrictor flaviventris

Say, 1823

eastern yellow-bellied racer
Coluber constrictor foxii

(Baird & Girard, 1853)

blue racer
Coluber constrictor helvigularis

Auffenberg, 1955

brown-chinned racer
Coluber constrictor latrunculus

Wilson, 1970

black-masked racer
Coluber constrictor oaxaca

(Jan, 1863)

Mexican racer
Coluber constrictor paludicola

Auffenberg & Babbitt, 1955

Everglades racer
Coluber constrictor priapus

Dunn & Wood, 1939

southern black racer
Coluber constrictor mormon

(Baird & Girard, 1852)

western yellow-bellied racer[4]

Description

[edit]

Adult eastern racers can typically vary from 50 to 152 cm (20 to 60 in) in total length (tail included) depending on the subspecies, but a record-sized specimen measured 185.4 cm (73.0 in) in total length.[5][6][7] A typical adult specimen will weigh around 556 g (1.226 lb), with little size difference between the sexes.[8]

The patterns vary widely among subspecies. Most are solid-colored as their common names imply: black racers, brown racers, tan racers, blue racers, or green racers. "Runner" is sometimes used instead of "racer" in their common names. All subspecies have a lighter-colored underbelly: white, light tan, or yellow in color. Juveniles are more strikingly patterned, with a middorsal row of dark blotches on a light ground color. The tail is unpatterned. As they grow older, the dorsum darkens and the juvenile pattern gradually disappears.[5]

Behavior

[edit]
Western yellow-bellied racer (C. c. mormon)
Southern black racer (C. c. priapus) eating a southern leopard frog, in Georgia

The eastern racers are fast-moving, highly active, diurnal snakes. Their diet consists primarily of small rodents, other mammals (as large as small cottontail rabbits), frogs, toads, small turtles, lizards, and other snakes.[9][10] Some subspecies are known to climb trees to eat eggs and young birds. Juveniles often consume soft-bodied insects and other small invertebrates,[11] as well as small frogs, small reptiles (including lizards and snakes and their eggs), young rodents, and shrews.[10] Despite their specific name, constrictor, they do not really employ constriction, instead simply subduing struggling prey by pinning it bodily, pressing one or two coils against it to hold it in place instead of actually suffocating it. Most smaller prey items are simply swallowed alive.

They are curious snakes with excellent vision. They are visual hunters and hunt exclusively in the daytime[12] and are often seen raising their heads above the ground to get a better view of their surroundings, a behavior dubbed "periscoping" by snake enthusiasts. Aptly named, racers are very fast and typically flee from a potential predator. However, once cornered, they put up a vigorous fight, biting hard and often. They are difficult to handle and will writhe, defecate, and release a foul-smelling musk from their cloacae. Vibrating their tails among dry leaves, racers can sound convincingly like rattlesnakes.[13]

Habitat

[edit]

Coluber constrictor is found frequently near water, but also in brush, trash piles, roadsides, and swamps, and in suburbia; it is the most common snake in residential neighborhoods in Florida. It spends most of its time on the ground, but it is a good tree climber and may be found in shrubs and trees where bird nests can be raided for eggs and chicks, as well as small adult birds such as finches, canaries, and thrashers.

Most of the eastern racers prefer open, grassland-type habitats where their keen eyesight and speed can be readily used, but they are also found in light forest and even semiarid regions. They are usually not far from an area of cover for hiding.

Reproduction

[edit]

In Coluber constrictor, mating takes place in the spring from April until early June. Around a month later, the female lays three to 30 eggs in a hidden nest site, such as a hollow log, an abandoned rodent burrow, or under a rock. The juveniles hatch in the early fall. A newborn is 8–10 in (20–26 cm) in total length. Maturity is reached around 2 years old. Eastern racers have been known to lay their eggs in communal sites, where a number of snakes, even those from other species, all lay their eggs together.

Symbol

[edit]

The northern black racer is the state reptile of Ohio.[14]

[edit]
  • Juvenile eastern yellow-bellied racer, C. c. flaviventris
    Juvenile eastern yellow-bellied racer, C. c. flaviventris
  • Adult eastern yellow-bellied racer, C. c. flaviventris
    Adult eastern yellow-bellied racer, C. c. flaviventris
  • Adult northern black racer, C. c. constrictor
    Adult northern black racer, C. c. constrictor
  • Adult northern black racer, C. c. constrictor, in typical habitat
    Adult northern black racer, C. c. constrictor, in typical habitat
  • Adult black rat snake, Pantherophis obsoletus, often confused with the northern black racer
    Adult black rat snake, Pantherophis obsoletus, often confused with the northern black racer
  • Close up of adult southern black racer, C. c. priapus, showing the iridescence of its scales
    Close up of adult southern black racer, C. c. priapus, showing the iridescence of its scales

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Eastern racer

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) is a nonvenomous species of colubrid snake native to North America, distinguished by its slender, fast-moving body that can reach lengths of up to 72 inches (183 cm), smooth dorsal scales, and solid dorsal coloration such as black, blue, or gray in adults (varying by subspecies), while juveniles exhibit grayish tones with dark blotches. This snake is a habitat generalist, commonly found in open areas such as fields, meadows, prairies, forest edges, and agricultural lands, where it thrives in sunny, vegetated environments across its extensive range from southern through the central, eastern, and , extending as far west as and . Diurnal and highly alert, the Eastern racer is known for its rapid escape when disturbed, though it may bluff charge or bite if cornered, despite being harmless to humans; it does not constrict prey despite its name, instead swallowing small vertebrates and alive. Its diet is opportunistic and varied, including , frogs, , small snakes, birds, bird eggs, and , with juveniles focusing more on like grasshoppers and crickets. Reproduction occurs in spring, with females laying clutches of 8 to 36 eggs in that hatch into 8- to 12-inch juveniles by late summer or fall, reaching within two years. The encompasses several , such as the northern black racer (C. c. constrictor) and (C. c. foxii), which vary slightly in coloration and regional distribution but share the ' agile, non-aggressive nature and ecological role as a predator in open ecosystems. Abundant and not typically protected, the Eastern racer is often encountered in rural and suburban areas, contributing to pest control by preying on small mammals and , though some like the face conservation concerns in certain states due to habitat loss.

Taxonomy

Classification

The Eastern racer is scientifically classified as Coluber constrictor, a binomial name assigned by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758. This nomenclature reflects its placement within the genus Coluber, where "coluber" derives from the Latin term for snake, and "constrictor" alludes to an early misconception of its feeding behavior as involving constriction, though it is a nonvenomous species that typically swallows prey alive. It belongs to the family , commonly known as colubrids, which encompasses the majority of advanced snakes worldwide, and the subfamily Colubrinae, characterized by aglyphous (non-venomous) dentition and diverse ecologies. The genus Coluber is monotypic in , containing only C. constrictor as its sole species in the region, though the genus has historical ties to Eurasian taxa. Evolutionarily, C. constrictor represents an early divergence within the Colubrinae subfamily, part of a broader radiation of Old World racer-like snakes that dispersed to and adapted within environments during the , as evidenced by phylogenetic analyses of squamate reptiles. Historically, the of Coluber constrictor has undergone revisions, with the previously classified under broader interpretations of the Coluber that included numerous Old and forms; 20th-century studies restructured the , elevating related groups to distinct genera like Hierophis for Eurasian racers and confirming C. constrictor's isolated status. Synonyms such as Bascanion constrictor and Zamenis constrictor reflect these shifts, stemming from earlier classifications based on morphology. Currently, 11 are recognized, distinguished primarily by morphological variations and geographic isolation, though phylogeographic studies using have identified six major lineages suggesting potential future taxonomic adjustments. A 2024 genomic study supports five major lineages across eastern and western , further refining the understanding of boundaries. Recent genomic studies continue to refine these boundaries, but the 11-subspecies is retained pending further integrative data on and morphology.

Subspecies

The North American racer (Coluber constrictor) comprises 11 recognized , differentiated primarily by dorsal and ventral coloration, subtle scale patterns, and geographic ranges across and parts of . These taxa reflect regional adaptations and historical naming based on morphological observations, with type localities often tied to early collections in the 19th and 20th centuries. The following table summarizes the , including key distinguishing features, distributions, type localities, and original descriptions.
SubspeciesCommon NameKey Distinguishing FeaturesGeographic RangeType LocalityAuthor and Year
C. c. anthicusButtermilk RacerGrayish-brown dorsum with darker longitudinal stripes; cream-colored venter with dark spots.Southern Arkansas, Louisiana, eastern Texas (USA).Natchitoches, Louisiana (USA).Cope, 1862
C. c. constrictorNorthern Black RacerAdults uniformly black dorsally; white chin and throat; juveniles gray with brown blotches.Southern Maine to northeastern Alabama (USA)."Canada" (likely eastern North America).Linnaeus, 1758
C. c. etheridgeiTan RacerTan to light brown dorsum; pale venter; less melanistic than black racers.West-central Louisiana to adjacent Texas (USA).Dallardsville, Polk County, Texas (USA).Wilson, 1970
C. c. flaviventrisEastern Yellow-bellied RacerOlive to brown dorsum; bright yellow venter; slender build compared to western counterpart.Montana to Texas and southwestern Louisiana (USA).Pottawattamie County, Iowa (USA).Say, 1823
C. c. foxiiBlue RacerBluish-gray to blue-green dorsum; white venter; prominent brow ridges.Southern Ontario (Canada); northwestern Ohio to southeastern Minnesota (USA).Grosse Isle, Michigan (USA).Baird & Girard, 1853
C. c. helvigularisBrown-chinned RacerSolid black dorsum like black racers but with brown chin and throat.Florida Panhandle, southern Georgia, Alabama (USA).Gulf County, Florida (USA).Auffenberg, 1955
C. c. latrunculusBlack-masked RacerBlack dorsum with distinct dark facial mask; pale venter.Southeastern Louisiana to northern Missouri (USA).St. James Parish, Louisiana (USA).Wilson, 1970
C. c. mormonWestern Yellow-bellied RacerYellowish-tan dorsum fading to yellow venter; more robust and shorter than eastern yellow-bellied.British Columbia (Canada); Oregon to California (USA).Great Salt Lake, Utah (USA).Baird & Girard, 1852
C. c. oaxacaMexican RacerVariable brown to black dorsum; pale underparts; extends into subtropical regions.Southern Texas (USA); Tamaulipas to Chiapas (Mexico); Guatemala."Mexico" (unspecified).Jan, 1863
C. c. paludicolaEverglades RacerLighter gray-black dorsum than southern black racer; less white on chin; smaller eyes.Everglades region, southeastern Florida, upper Florida Keys (USA).Dade County, Florida (USA).Auffenberg & Babbitt, 1955
C. c. priapusSouthern Black RacerUniformly black dorsum; white chin; similar to northern but with more southern traits like slight reddish tint in juveniles.Southeastern states to southeastern Oklahoma, lower Florida Keys (USA).West Palm Beach, Florida (USA).Dunn & Wood, 1939
The validity of these subspecies has been debated, particularly following phylogeographic analyses using that identified six independently evolving lineages not entirely aligning with traditional morphological boundaries; for instance, the (C. c. mormon) and racer (C. c. paludicola) show limited genetic distinction from others. A 2024 genomic study supports five major lineages distributed across eastern and western . Recent genomic studies continue to refine these boundaries, but the 11-subspecies is retained pending further integrative data on and morphology.

Description

Size and morphology

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) is a slender, cylindrical snake characterized by its elongated body and smooth dorsal scales. Adults typically measure 50–152 cm (20–60 in) in total length, with a maximum recorded length of 185.4 cm (73 in). The body features 17 rows of smooth scales at midbody, reducing to 15 rows near the tail, and a divided anal scale. The head is slightly wider than the , distinguished by large eyes with round pupils that enhance its diurnal vision. The average weight is approximately 556 g (1.23 lb), with minimal in size. The tail comprises 22-28% of the total length, with males having proportionally longer tails than females, aiding in balance during rapid movements. Juveniles exhibit morphology similar to adults but on a smaller scale, hatching at 20–30 cm (8–12 in) and gradually losing their initial blotched patterning as they grow.

Coloration

The adult Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) displays a uniform solid coloration on the dorsal surface, ranging from black and bluish-black in some populations to brown, tan, , blue, or gray, while the ventral side is lighter, typically , cream, yellow, or light blue-gray. This solid patterning contrasts with the more mottled appearance of juveniles, which are gray to light brown dorsally with distinct dark gray, brown, or reddish-brown blotches often featuring pale centers, particularly pronounced on the anterior body; these blotches typically fade to a uniform color by the end of the first or second year of life. Regional variations in adult coloration occur across the species' range, with northern populations often exhibiting darker dorsal hues such as solid black, as seen in the Northern black racer (C. c. constrictor), while southern and western populations tend toward lighter shades like tan, , or bluish-gray. The ontogenetic shift from blotched juvenile patterns to uniform adult coloration enhances effectiveness, allowing adults to blend into diverse habitats like open grasslands or forest floors, which reduces detection by predators compared to the more conspicuous juvenile patterning. Sexual dimorphism in coloration is minimal, with males and females sharing the same dorsal and ventral color schemes, though females may be slightly larger overall. Certain , such as the blue racer (C. c. foxii), display distinctive regional hues like bluish-gray dorsally.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) has a broad native range across eastern and central , extending from southern southward to northern . Its distribution encompasses much of the and southern (including and ), northern Mexico, , and . The northern limit of the species reaches southern , , and adjacent regions in the , while the southern limit extends to the lowlands of . Historically, the range has experienced declines in agricultural areas due to habitat conversion, but it remains generally stable overall, with possible localized contractions from ongoing habitat loss in some regions. Subspecies exhibit more restricted distributions within this overall range; for instance, (C. c. foxii) occurs in the , spanning , , , , , and . The species is non-migratory on a large scale but undertakes local movements, typically up to 2 kilometers, between summer foraging areas and winter sites.

Habitat preferences

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) thrives in a diverse array of open and semi-open ecosystems, favoring habitats that offer ample , cover, and prey availability. Preferred environments include open grasslands, forest edges, semiarid scrublands, agricultural fields, and suburban areas where human-modified landscapes provide suitable conditions. These snakes are particularly abundant in early successional or shrubby habitats, such as shrublands and margins, which support a mix of vegetative cover and open ground for basking and movement. Individuals are frequently observed in close proximity to water sources, including , , and wetlands, which enhance prey abundance and provide microclimates for . This association with aquatic edges is common in both natural and disturbed settings, such as streamsides and margins, though the species is not strictly aquatic. The Eastern racer occupies a broad elevational range, from to approximately 2,550 meters (8,366 feet), allowing it to inhabit lowlands, prairies, and montane across its distribution. For shelter and overwintering, Eastern racers seek out rock crevices, downed logs, and abandoned burrows, often utilizing these sites communally during the colder months to conserve heat. These hibernacula are typically located on south-facing slopes or in wooded hillsides, providing protection from freezing temperatures and predators. The species exhibits notable adaptations as an excellent climber, readily ascending shrubs, low trees, and vegetation to reach elevated resources such as bird nests. This arboreal capability aids in exploiting three-dimensional habitats and evading threats on the ground.

Behavior and ecology

Activity patterns

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) exhibits predominantly diurnal activity patterns, remaining active primarily during to capitalize on optimal temperatures for and foraging. Activity typically peaks in the morning and late afternoon, allowing the snake to bask early in the day and extend its movements as temperatures cool toward evening, while avoiding the midday heat in warmer months. This daytime orientation aligns with its reliance on visual cues for and prey detection across open habitats. Renowned for its agility, the Eastern racer can achieve bursts of speed of approximately 5-6 km/h (3-4 mph) over short distances, a capability that underscores its "racer" moniker and aids in escaping predators or pursuing mobile prey. Seasonally, these snakes emerge from sites in or , coinciding with rising spring temperatures, and maintain activity through the warmer months until or , when cooler weather prompts a return to overwintering refuges. In northern portions of its range, lasts 5 to 7 months, during which individuals seek shelter in communal dens located in rocky outcrops, crevices, or abandoned burrows, often shared with other snake species for and survival during subfreezing conditions. Home range sizes for the Eastern racer vary by habitat quality and region, typically ranging from 1 to 20 hectares, with males often occupying slightly larger areas than females to facilitate mate searching. During the breeding season, males become territorial, defending core areas through increased movement and agonistic displays to secure access to receptive females. These patterns reflect adaptations to seasonal resource availability, with individuals often showing fidelity to established ranges across active periods.

Diet and foraging

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) is an opportunistic generalist predator with a broad diet that includes small mammals such as (e.g., mice and voles), birds and their eggs, amphibians like frogs, reptiles including and other snakes, and such as . Juveniles primarily consume , particularly orthopterans (e.g., grasshoppers) and lepidopterans (e.g., caterpillars), while adults shift toward vertebrates, with forming a significant portion of their diet by . This ontogenetic dietary shift reflects gape limitations in younger snakes and increasing predatory capabilities as they mature. As active visual hunters, Eastern racers pursue prey diurnally on the ground, in low vegetation, or occasionally in trees, relying on speed and agility rather than tactics. They seize prey with quick strikes using sharp teeth and swallow it alive without constriction, contrary to implications in their scientific name. Prey selection is influenced by availability, with the species exhibiting flexibility across habitats. Eastern racers feed frequently relative to other snakes, consuming small meals during the active season from spring to fall. By controlling populations of and other small vertebrates, they play a key ecological role in maintaining balance in grasslands, forests, and agricultural areas, reducing pest numbers that impact crops and ecosystems.

Predators and defense

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) faces predation from a variety of avian and mammalian species, as well as larger reptiles. Primary predators include such as hawks and owls, which target both adults and juveniles during diurnal activity. Mammals like foxes, coyotes, and domestic cats also prey upon racers, often ambushing them in open habitats. Larger snakes, including kingsnakes and bigger individuals of their own species, consume racers, particularly juveniles. Eggs laid in concealed sites are vulnerable to predation by small mammals such as raccoons and , contributing to high early-life mortality. To counter these threats, Eastern racers employ a of evasion and bluff tactics as primary defense mechanisms. Their exceptional speed, reaching up to 6 km/h (4 mph), allows rapid flight into dense , burrows, or trees when disturbed, making pursuit difficult for many predators. plays a key role, especially in juveniles whose blotched patterns blend with leaf litter and , though adults rely less on this due to uniform coloration. If escape is impossible, racers adopt an aggressive posture: they coil, vibrate their tail against substrate to produce a rattling sound mimicking venomous rattlesnakes, and perform bluff strikes without attempting to bite initially. When cornered or handled, Eastern racers become notably defensive, striking repeatedly and biting to deter threats. These snakes are generally docile and non-aggressive toward undisturbed observers but will not hesitate to attack if provoked. Bites cause localized pain and bleeding from sharp, recurved teeth, though the effects are non-lethal to humans. Additionally, they may secrete foul-smelling musk from cloacal glands to repel attackers. Juvenile Eastern racers experience significantly higher predation rates than adults, owing to their smaller size and conspicuous patterns that attract visual hunters like birds and small mammals. Adult racers benefit from greater speed and size, resulting in lower mortality from natural predators, though overall survival remains influenced by openness.

Reproduction

Mating and breeding

The mating season for the Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) occurs from April to early June, shortly after the snakes emerge from . During this period, increased activity and encounters between males and females facilitate reproduction, with peak breeding often in May. Courtship involves males pursuing and trailing receptive s, often using rapid, spasmodic body undulations and positioning themselves alongside the female to rub their bodies against hers. Males may place their chin on the female's back to align for copulation, which can last several minutes and involves the female sometimes dragging the male along. Rival males engage in through wrestling behaviors, such as coiling and entwining to establish dominance, with the victor gaining priority access to the female. The Eastern racer exhibits , where males with multiple females during the season, while females are oviparous, producing eggs after mating. Sexual maturity is typically reached at around 2 years of age or when individuals attain a snout-vent length of 60–70 cm, though some males may mature slightly earlier. size averages 12–14 eggs and shows a positive with female body size, allowing larger females to produce more offspring.

Egg laying and development

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) is oviparous, with females typically laying eggs between and following spring mating. Clutch sizes range from 3 to 30 eggs, with an average of about 12, though regional variations exist—such as means of 9–16 in the and 5–12 in western populations. Eggs are deposited in concealed sites, including rotting logs, stumps, piles, or burrows in loose , often solitary but occasionally in communal nests. The eggs are elongated, leathery-shelled, and white to cream-colored, measuring 2.5–3.9 cm in length and 1.6–2.2 cm in width, with a surface often coated in small nodules. No is provided after oviposition, leaving the clutch vulnerable to environmental conditions and predators. Incubation lasts 45–70 days, influenced by and moisture, with optimal ranges of 25–30°C yielding hatching success; lower temperatures around 22°C extend the period to 62–63 days, while 28°C shortens it to 39–40 days. occurs from late through , typically in . Hatchlings emerge at 25–33 cm in total length, weighing approximately 5–6 g, and are immediately independent, dispersing to forage on their own. They retain a grayish or bluish-gray coloration with dark blotches that fade over time. Growth is rapid in the first year, with individuals often reaching 50–70 cm by the end of their initial active season, driven by abundant prey and favorable conditions like high .

Conservation

Status

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) is classified as Least Concern on the , with this status assessed on May 7, 2012, and population trends remaining stable as of 2025. The species is widespread across its North American range, with total adult population size estimated to exceed 1,000,000 individuals and no evidence of global decline. Regionally, conservation statuses vary; for instance, the blue racer subspecies (C. c. foxii) is listed as Endangered in under the Species at Risk Act, particularly in and parts of the , primarily due to habitat loss. In the core range, populations are considered stable and common. Populations are monitored through herpetological surveys, including mark-recapture methods and radio-telemetry studies conducted by state wildlife agencies and researchers. Legal protections exist in certain states where the species is rare or designated as nongame; for example, it receives protection in as the state , with no open permitted.

Threats and protection

The Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor) faces several human-induced threats that impact its populations across its range in . Habitat fragmentation due to and disrupts the snake's preferred open woodlands, grasslands, and forest edges, reducing available and sites. Roadkill is a significant mortality factor, particularly during seasonal migrations, as the snake's active nature leads it to cross roads frequently, with studies showing high-traffic areas as hotspots for fatalities. Pesticide applications in agricultural areas indirectly affect the species by contaminating or depleting its , , and small prey, though direct population-level impacts remain understudied. Additional risks include illegal collection for the pet trade, where juveniles are occasionally captured due to their striking appearance and speed, despite their challenging captive care requirements. arises from misidentification as a venomous , leading to intentional killings by humans encountering the snake in residential or rural areas. Conservation measures focus on mitigating these threats through targeted actions. preservation efforts in protected areas, such as national parks and grasslands, help maintain contiguous landscapes essential for the racer's large home ranges. In some regions, wildlife under-road crossings and drift fences have been installed to reduce road mortality, with specific projects designed for the North American racer guiding snakes safely beneath highways. Public education campaigns emphasize the snake's nonvenomous status and ecological benefits, such as , to decrease . For the subspecies C. c. flaviventris (Eastern yellow-bellied racer), federal protection under Canada's Species at Risk Act (SARA) prohibits harm to individuals and habitats, supporting recovery strategies that include monitoring and stewardship. Overall, the Eastern racer's global population is considered stable and listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, but ongoing monitoring is essential for peripheral or isolated populations vulnerable to localized declines.

Cultural significance

Symbolism

The Northern black racer, a of the Eastern racer (Coluber constrictor constrictor), was designated as the official state of in 1995 by the state legislature, recognizing its prevalence across the region and role in local ecosystems. In Native American folklore, snakes broadly symbolize agility, speed, and transformation, often linked to natural forces like . In modern contexts, non-venomous snakes serve as educational tools in conservation programs, helping to foster positive attitudes toward them and their ecological roles, as highlighted in studies on snake education initiatives. The Eastern racer also frequently appears in , capturing its dynamic presence in natural habitats for public awareness and appreciation. Common misconceptions lead to the Eastern racer being mistaken for rat snakes or venomous species like the , resulting in unnecessary killings despite its non-venomous status and benefits in controlling pest populations. The Eastern racer lacks prominent mythological roles in major cultural narratives.

References

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  9. https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-13-93
  10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790307003788
  11. https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/zoolinnean/zlae018/7632624
  12. https://ssarherps.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/8th-Ed-2017-Scientific-and-Standard-English-Names.pdf
  13. https://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/cosewic/sr_east_west_yellowbellied_racers_e.pdf
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  20. https://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=aradb07010
  21. https://www.tn.gov/twra/wildlife/reptiles/snakes/north-american-racer.html
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  33. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/42676/42676-h/42676-h.htm
  34. https://www.britannica.com/animal/racer-snake
  35. https://www.env.gov.bc.ca/okanagan/esd/atlas/species/racer.html
  36. https://meridian.allenpress.com/herpetologica/article/67/4/428/32846/Spatial-Ecology-of-Eastern-Yellow-Bellied-Racer
  37. https://www.maine.gov/ifw/docs/species_planning/reptiles/northernblackracer/speciesassessment07.pdf
  38. https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/deep/wildlife/pdf_files/outreach/fact_sheets/blackracerpdf.pdf
  39. https://www.maine.gov/ifw/docs/endangered/blackracer_82_83.pdf
  40. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2120&context=theses
  41. https://www.wildlife.nh.gov/sites/g/files/ehbemt746/files/inline-images/reptile-northernblackracer.pdf
  42. https://dwr.virginia.gov/blog/a-snake-in-the-grass-is-a-very-good-thing/
  43. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269401185_Comparative_Ecology_and_Life_History_of_the_Racer_Coluber_constrictor_in_Michigan
  44. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0107528
  45. https://fieldguide.wyndd.org/?species=coluber%2520constrictor
  46. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1564223
  47. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/63736/3125703
  48. https://codes.ohio.gov/ohio-revised-code/section-5.031
  49. https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-official-item/ohio/state-reptile/black-racer
  50. https://baskets.nhmu.utah.edu/collections/symbols/snake-symbolism
  51. https://scarab.bates.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=biology_theses
  52. https://www.mindenpictures.com/stock-photo-black-racer-snake-columber-constrictor-close-up-on-grass-naturephotography-image80006498.html
  53. https://dep.nj.gov/njfw/wp-content/uploads/njfw/snake_broch-1.pdf
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