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Ghost moth
Ghost moth
Ghost moth
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Ghost moth
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Hepialidae
Genus: Hepialus
Fabricius, 1775
Species:
H. humuli
Binomial name
Hepialus humuli
Synonyms
List
  • Genus:
    • Hepiolus Illiger, 1801
    • Epialus Agassiz, 1847
    • Epiolus Agassiz, 1847
    • Tephus Wallengren, 1869
    Species:
    • Noctua humuli Linnaeus, 1758
    • Hepialus thulensis Newman, 1865
    • Hepialus humulator Haworth, 1802
    • Hepialus hethlandica Staudinger, 1871
    • Hepialus rosea Petersen, 1902
    • Hepialus albida Spuler, 1910
    • Hepialus azuga Pfitzner, 1912
    • Hepialus grandis Pfitzner, 1912
    • Hepialus dannenbergi Stephan, 1923
    • Hepialus pusillus Stephan, 1923
    • Hepialus rufomaculata Lempke, 1938
    • Hepialus albida Bytinski-Salz, 1939
    • Hepialus roseoornata Bytinski-Salz, 1939
    • Hepialus uniformis Bytinski-Salz, 1939
    • Hepialus faeroensis Dahl, 1954
    • Hepialus fumosa Cockayne, 1955
    • Hepialus radiata Cockayne, 1955
    • Hepialus postnigrescens Lempke, 1961
    • Hepialus postrufescens Lempke, 1961
    • Hepialus griseomaculata van Wisselingh, 1965
    • Hepialus thuleus

The ghost moth or ghost swift (Hepialus humuli) is a moth of the family Hepialidae. It is common throughout Europe, except for the far south-east.

Female ghost moths are larger than males, and exhibit sexual dimorphism with their differences in size and wing color. The adults fly from June to August and are attracted to light. The species overwinters as a larva.[1] The larva is whitish and maggot-like and feeds underground on the roots of a variety of wild and cultivated plants (see list below). The species can be an economically significant pest in forest nurseries.[2]

The term ghost moth is sometimes used as a general term for all hepialids. The ghost moth gets its name from the hovering display flight of the male, sometimes slowly rising and falling, over open ground to attract females. In a suitable location, several males may display together in a lek.[3]

Physiology and description

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Female ghost moths have a wingspan of 50–70 mm. They have yellowish-buff forewings with darker linear markings and brown hindwings. Males are smaller, with a wingspan of 46–50 mm, and typically have white or silver wings.[1] However, in H. h. thulensis, found in Shetland and the Faroe Islands, there are buff-coloured individuals.

Mating

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Male/male interactions

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Lekking

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The ghost swift aggregates in leks in order to attract female mates. Lekking occurs at dusk and typically lasts for 20–30 minutes.[3] During the lekking period, incident light intensities between 10.0 and 2.0 lux have been found to increase the brightness contrast between the background (grass/plants) and male moths' silver/white wings. It is thus believed that the male wing color may have evolved as a secondary adaptation to aid in the moth's visibility.[4]

Displaying

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The male ghost swifts display by hovering directly above vegetation, while occasionally shifting slowly horizontally. The displaying male only occasionally made vertical movements to shift display positions.[5] Females are attracted to the displaying males in leks, and once a female chooses a male, she will pass within a few centimeters of him.[6] The male will follow the female, who will land and beat her wings, signaling that the male may approach her. The two moths will then copulate.[6]

Female/male interactions

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Pheromones

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Males perform a flight display and use both chemical and visual signals to attract females to their mating sites.[7] While aggregating in leks, male ghost swifts use pheromones.. These are emitted in order to attract a female, but they are not known to be used as an aphrodisiac. The main component of the male pheromone (in the distantly related species Phymatopus hecta) is (E,E)-α-Farnesene.[8]

The olfactory substances used to attract females are produced on the male's hind tibial brushes, and were said to be "goat-like", meaning the smell of the Goat Moth caterpillar.[7][9] Males may also be attracted to stationary females by olfactory stimuli.

Sexual dimorphism

[edit]
Female ghost moth (left) and male ghost moth (right)

The ghost moth displays high levels of sexual dichromatism (see picture right). Female ghost moths are a yellow-brownish color, while males have silver/white wings. It has been suggested that the difference in wing color between males and females is used for visual epidemic signaling.[3] The upperside of males have unpigmented scales with elaborate morphology and meshwork that allow for light reflection and may aid in attracting females.[10] The females lack the intricate morphology of the males. The underside of both the male and female ghost moth is a uniform grey/brown color.[10] It is believed that there is behavioral dimorphism as well, with one study showing that females were more attracted to light than males.[7]

Predators

[edit]

Common predators of ghost moths include several species of bats and birds. These predators are attracted to the moths during the male flight displays. Eptesicus nilssonii, the northern bat, has often been documented preying on lekking ghost moths. The ghost moth is a member of the family Hepialidae, an early branch of Lepidoptera. Species in the Hepialidae lack several predator defense systems, including ultrasonic hearing.[4] The ghost moth lacks sophisticated predator defense systems and instead restricts its sexual behavior to a short period during dusk to reduce its predation risk. Despite these precautions, the moth is still at a large predation risk, especially at high latitudes where twilight is prolonged.

It is believed that the deaf moths, such as the family Hepialidae, predate the predatory bats that may have driven the evolution of ultrasonic hearing. It is currently believed that the ghost moth's restricted flight patterns and low flight positions may be their main form of anti-predator defense.[4] The ghost moth displays for only 20–30 minutes at dusk, which aids in predator avoidance, as most bats typically do not start feeding until after dusk, and most birds stop feeding well in advance of sunset.[3]

Life history

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Egg

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On average, most female ghost moths will lay around 600 eggs over four days, but a female can lay anywhere from 200 to 1,600 eggs.[2]

Figs. 3. 3a, 3b larvae after last moult 3c pupa

Larva

[edit]

The ghost moth larvae grow up to 50 mm long and have a white opaque body with a red/brown head.[1] Their prothoracic plate is also red/brown, and their pinacula is dark brown. The young larvae feed on plant rootlets, while the older larvae feed on larger roots, stolons, and the lower regions of plant stems.[1] The larval growth is very slow, and the developmental period can last for two to three years. The larva have at least 12 instars, but further research is needed to see if there may be more instars during higher temperatures.[2] The larva cause damage to the plants they consume, with damage being the worst during the second summer of the larva's growth period.[1] The larvae typically feed in grasslands, lawns, and pastures and have been known to cause significant damage to the host species.[1] In the British Isles, the ghost moth larvae live in the soil and can commonly be found underneath the grass.[2]

Pupa

[edit]

The ghost moth typically pupates during April or May after the two to three-year larval growth period has ended.[1]

Adult

[edit]

Adults are most commonly found in June and July, and they are typically active around dusk. In particular, lekking and mating occur at dusk.[1]

Damage to crops

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Ghost moth larvae are polyphagous—they are able to feed on multiple types of plants.[2] Larvae born on crops will typically feed on the roots and can cause significant damage to the crops. Ghost moths frequently cause damage to strawberries, lettuce, and chrysanthemum plants.[2]

Recorded food plants

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Additional species which may be included in Hepialus

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Chinese authors retain a number of species in Hepialus. Most of these are placed in the genus Thitarodes by others. Species retained in Hepialus include:

Etymology

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Hepialus humuli was first described by the Swedish taxonomist, Carl Linnaeus, in 1758. He named it Phalaena Noctua humuli — implying night moth of the hop vine. It was later allocated to the genus Hepialus (a fever), which was raised by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775 and refers to its ″fitful, alternating flight″. The specific name humuli refers to the genus of hops (Humulus), on which Linnaeus wrongly thought the larvae fed on its roots.[11]

Subspecies

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  • Hepialus humuli humuli
  • Hepialus humuli thulensis Newman, 1865 (Great Britain, Faroe Islands)

Ghost moth in folklore

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It is believed that the common name of "ghost moth" for Hepialus humuli may have originated from European folklore, as there are numerous references to white moths being the souls of the departed.[12] It is believed that the ghost moth is also referenced in the last passage of Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë.[12]

[edit]
  • Ghost moth on a Faroese stamp
    Ghost moth on a Faroese stamp
  • Female
    Female
  • Male
    Male
  • Larva
    Larva

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ghost moth

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The ghost moth (Hepialus humuli), also known as the ghost swift, is a medium-sized belonging to the family , characterized by pronounced in wing coloration and size. Males exhibit entirely white wings with a of 42–50 mm, creating a spectral appearance during their hovering displays, while females are larger, with a of 50–70 mm, featuring yellowish-buff forewings marked with orange and darker patterns, and brown hindwings. This species is common across much of , particularly in the and , where it inhabits grassy meadows, rough grasslands, woodland rides, and open weedy areas, though it is absent from the far southeast of the continent. Adults emerge in a single annual generation from mid-June to late August, during which time the moths do not feed, as they lack functional mouthparts, relying instead on energy reserves accumulated during the larval stage. The life cycle typically spans two years: eggs are laid by females in batches on grass blades, hatching into caterpillars that burrow underground to feed on the roots of grasses and herbaceous plants such as nettles and docks, often overwintering twice before pupating in spring. Males engage in distinctive by forming leks—groups hovering pendulum-like over at in a swaying flight to attract mates—while both sexes are drawn to light sources. Despite its relative commonality, the ghost moth has experienced significant declines in the UK, with a 73% reduction in abundance between 1968 and 2002, leading to its designation as a priority species for conservation research in Northern Ireland and as a species of principal importance in England under section 41 of the Natural Environment and Rural Communities (NERC) Act 2006. In some regions, such as forest nurseries, the larvae can act as pests by damaging plant roots, though they play a role in the ecosystem as prey for ground-dwelling predators. The name "ghost moth" likely derives from the ethereal, soul-like quality of the males' white wings and nocturnal flights, evoking folklore associations with departed spirits.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Classification and synonyms

The ghost moth is classified within the order , superfamily Hepialoidea, family , genus Hepialus Fabricius, 1775, and species H. humuli (Linnaeus, 1758). This placement positions it among the most basal lineages of extant moths, known collectively as ghost moths or swift moths. The species was originally described by in his (1758) under the name Phalaena (Noctua) humuli, reflecting early taxonomic groupings of nocturnal . Historical synonyms include Phalaena humuli and Hepialus hethlandica Staudinger, 1871, though the latter is now considered a junior synonym based on morphological and distributional overlap. Another early name, Hepialus lupulinus, was briefly associated but pertains more closely to related taxa like the common swift moth (Korscheltellus lupulina). The 2023 revised world catalogue of by Grehan et al. confirms Hepialus as a monospecific limited to H. humuli, with no boundary shifts or major taxonomic revisions for this ; it annotates the original Linnaean description and notes its distinction from Asian congeners previously misplaced in the genus. This catalogue synthesizes nearly 400 years of literature, emphasizing stable classification amid broader family-wide rearrangements. Members of , including H. humuli, represent primitive moths evolutionarily, lacking the frenulum-retinaculum wing-coupling mechanism typical of derived and instead employing a basal jugum structure for flight synchronization. Adults also exhibit reduced mouthparts, often vestigial or absent, as they do not feed and rely on larval reserves for their brief lifespan.

The "ghost moth" for Hepialus humuli originates from the strikingly pale, white wings of the adult males, which take on an ethereal, spirit-like appearance as they hover over grasslands at in a display flight to attract females. This hovering , combined with the ghostly pallor, evokes images of apparitions, and the name may also draw from associating white moths with supernatural entities. The scientific binomial Hepialus humuli traces its roots to Carl Linnaeus's 1758 description in , where the species was originally named Phalaena (Noctua) humuli. The specific epithet "humuli" refers to the hop plant (), as early observations linked the moth's larvae to feeding on hop roots, though subsequent studies revealed a broader range of host plants including grasses and herbs. The genus was established by in 1775 to accommodate this and related species, deriving from the "hēpialos," meaning "fever," in reference to the moths' erratic, feverish flight patterns. Historically, the nomenclature of H. humuli evolved amid broader taxonomic shifts within the family, which encompasses both "ghost moths" and "swift moths" due to their rapid, darting flight. Early classifications placed the species under the catch-all genus Phalaena, leading to confusions with other swift-like moths in the , until Fabricius's reorganization highlighted distinguishing traits like the lack of a and primitive wing venation. This dual common naming persists today, reflecting ongoing overlaps in popular and scientific identification of hepialid species across . The ghost moth Hepialus humuli is divided into two primary : the nominate H. h. humuli, which occurs across mainland , and H. h. thulensis, restricted to the Islands and . The H. h. thulensis (Newman, 1865) exhibits distinct morphological traits, including smaller size and males with buff or creamy white forewings marked by brown spots, contrasting with the uniformly white forewings of H. h. humuli males; females in both show yellow forewings with orange markings, though thulensis variants can display darker tones. An additional variant, H. h. hethlandica (Staudinger, 1871), has been described from the Islands but is often subsumed under thulensis. Genetic analyses, including mitochondrial COI and nuclear RpS5 markers, reveal cryptic homogeneity across European populations of H. humuli, with no unique genetic or genitalic differences supporting thulensis as distinct; this has prompted proposals to synonymize thulensis with the nominate form, though phenotypic variations warrant its continued recognition in recent catalogues. Within the Hepialus genus, closely related species include H. sylvina (now classified as Triodia sylvina, the orange ghost or orange swift), which shares a broad European distribution with H. humuli and occupies similar grassy habitats, leading to potential distributional overlaps. Other European , such as Phymatopus hecta (formerly H. hecta) and Korscheltellus lupulina (formerly H. lupulinus), also exhibit range overlaps with H. humuli, raising the possibility of hybridization in sympatric areas, though no verified interspecific hybrids have been documented. Asian species formerly placed in Hepialus, particularly those in the genus Thitarodes (e.g., T. armoricanus and T. pui), have been subject to taxonomic debate regarding synonymy with Hepialus due to historical associations, but the 2023 global catalogue treats Thitarodes as a distinct with 80 , primarily high-altitude forms from the and that show no distributional overlap with H. humuli.

Physical description

Adult morphology

The adult ghost moth, Hepialus humuli, exhibits a robust body structure typical of the family, with a hairy covered in dense scales that provide insulation and . The is broad and sturdy, supporting powerful flight muscles suited for the moth's crepuscular hovering displays. s lack functional mouthparts, featuring a greatly reduced or absent , which renders them non-feeding and limits their adult lifespan to a few days focused on reproduction. The antennae show , with males possessing bipectinate structures that enhance detection, while females have filiform antennae. Wingspan varies by sex, measuring 40–50 mm in males and 50–70 mm in females, contributing to their medium-large size within the . Male forewings are typically cream-white and unpigmented, though geographical polymorphism occurs with variations such as yellow tones in certain populations (e.g., ), creating a ghostly appearance; whereas female forewings are yellowish-buff with darker linear markings for blending into vegetation; hindwings are brown in both sexes. Wing venation in H. humuli follows the primitive pattern characteristic of , with similar fore- and hindwing configurations, including a present jugum for and the absence of a distinct humeral at the forewing base, reflecting ancestral lepidopteran traits. In males, the scales possess an elaborate internal cuticular meshwork that reflects , producing a silvery sheen potentially aiding in mate attraction during low-light conditions. This microstructure contrasts with the more standard ridged scales in females, underscoring adaptive differences in visual signaling.

Sexual dimorphism

The ghost moth, Hepialus humuli, exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism, particularly in size, with females possessing a larger wingspan of 50–70 mm compared to males at 40–50 mm, a disparity that facilitates mate attraction during dusk lekking displays. This size difference correlates with forewing lengths, where females' wings are approximately 2.4–2.9 mm longer than those of males (p < 0.01). In coloration, males display silvery white wings that enhance visual signaling for attracting females from afar, while females have yellowish-buff forewings with darker linear markings and brown hindwings, providing cryptic against predators during egg-laying. This dimorphism extends to wing scale : male scales feature an elaborate meshwork that reflects light for conspicuousness, whereas female scales are simpler, pigmented, and dentate for blending with . Physiologically, males produce pheromones from bushy hairs on their hind legs, emitted during hovering to draw females to leks, contrasting with females' larger abdomens adapted for laying 200–1,600 eggs (mean ~600) over several days.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) is native to , where it exhibits a widespread distribution spanning the Palaearctic region from the and in the north to northern , southern , and in the south. Its range is shaped by postglacial expansions from multiple refugia in the , with genetic lineages indicating colonization of western and from northwestern and northeastern groups. The species is absent from the far south-eastern extremities of and shows no established presence in beyond potential minor overlaps in western boundary areas. Northern limits extend to the , , and southern , reaching approximately 65°N in , with such as H. h. thulensis in the northern islands ( and ). In the , populations are well-distributed across , , , and , though absent from the . Historical records confirm its presence in lowland areas throughout these regions, with phylogeographic evidence suggesting colonization of Britain via ancient land bridges like . Current extents remain stable, as indicated by citizen science observations on platforms like from 2020 to November 2025, which document ongoing localized populations without evidence of significant range shifts due to . In Britain specifically, abundance has declined by 73% between 1968 and 2002, making it a priority species for conservation, though globally it is by the IUCN; distribution maps show persistence in core areas.

Habitat preferences

The ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) primarily inhabits damp , meadows, , and edges featuring long grasses and weedy vegetation, where it can exploit suitable conditions for both larval development and adult lekking behaviors. These environments provide the open, grassy swards essential for male hovering displays at dusk, often in uncut or rank growth areas that offer acoustic and visual cues for mating. The species favors disturbed ground in both rural and urban settings, including field edges, rough meadows, and hedgerows adjacent to farmland with damp . Larval stages occupy moist soils within these habitats, where the subterranean caterpillars feed on grass and herbaceous roots, overwintering multiple times before pupation underground. Such soils, often warm and damp after rainfall, support the typically two- to three-year larval period by maintaining humidity and nutrient availability from decaying organic matter. Adult emergence and flight are concentrated in open fields near these larval sites, with leks forming over grassy patches to facilitate pheromone-based mate location. The species occurs from lowlands up to approximately 1,000 meters in elevation, with populations in alpine refugia indicating adaptability to montane grasslands during postglacial expansions. Recent research post-2020 underscores the vulnerability of these preferences to habitat fragmentation driven by agricultural intensification, which disrupts connected grassland networks essential for larval survival and adult dispersal in regions like southern Sweden.

Life cycle

Eggs

Female ghost moths deposit their eggs by scattering 200–1,600 of them loosely over or the surface while flying low over suitable habitats. This oviposition takes place over a four-day period following , with an average of approximately 600 eggs per female. The eggs are laid in loose clusters but remain unattached and not glued to the substrate, allowing them to fall among ground debris where they develop. Under summer conditions, the eggs hatch after 10–14 days, though controlled experiments record an ranging from 11 to 24 days (mean of 18 days) at 20°C. In cooler climates, eggs exhibit potential, remaining viable without hatching for at least six months at 5°C. Hatching success is high, with at least 80% viability observed even in relatively dry air. Egg survival in the field is influenced by environmental factors, including vulnerability to —requiring near 100% humidity for optimal development, as is characteristic of eggs—and predation by ground-foraging and birds that target the exposed clusters on the surface.

Larvae

The larvae of the ghost moth, Hepialus humuli, are whitish, maggot-like caterpillars with an orange-red head capsule that provides protection during feeding. They undergo 12 to 14 instars, reaching full maturity at lengths of 30–50 mm. This elongated body form is typical of hepialid larvae, adapted for subterranean life. These larvae are root-boring feeders, constructing silk-lined burrows and chambers in the soil from which they emerge to consume roots of grasses and herbaceous plants. They exhibit polyphagous habits, attacking a range of wild and cultivated species such as nettles (Urtica dioica), docks (Rumex spp.), and strawberries (Fragaria spp.), though they thrive in moist, grassy soils. Feeding activity peaks in late autumn and spring, contributing to their slow growth over a biennial or sometimes triennial cycle. The larvae overwinter twice, typically entering a state of reduced activity in chambers to endure cold temperatures, with development resuming in milder conditions. This prolonged larval phase, spanning 2–3 years from hatching to pupation in spring, reflects their to temperate environments where optimal growth occurs at around 15°C.

Pupae

The pupal stage of the ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) is initiated in April or May, when fully grown larvae, after two years of root-feeding underground, construct silk-lined chambers in the for pupation. The pupae are enclosed within a brown cocoon. This non-feeding stage lasts 3–4 weeks, during which the pupa undergoes metamorphosis before adult emergence in late May to early June. For emergence, the pupa actively wriggles upward through the soil to the surface, often leaving the empty pupal case protruding after the adult has eclosed. Female pupae are larger than those of males, reflecting the sexual size dimorphism observed in adults. Eclosion is triggered by rising temperatures in spring, with development proceeding optimally around 15°C.

Adults

Adult ghost moths (Hepialus humuli) emerge from pupae in late spring or and possess no functional mouthparts, rendering them incapable of feeding as adults. They rely entirely on reserves accumulated during the larval stage to fuel their brief lifespan, which typically lasts only a few days to a week. This non-feeding physiology is characteristic of the family, prioritizing energy allocation toward reproduction over sustenance. The flight period for adults spans from mid-June to late August in their native range across , with peak activity occurring during the crepuscular hours around . Males engage in short bursts of display flight, lasting 20–30 minutes beginning approximately 57 minutes after sunset, under low light intensities of 2.0–10.0 . This timing minimizes predation risk while facilitating mate location. In terms of sensory adaptations, the compound eyes of adult ghost moths are suited for detecting movement and contrasts in low-light environments, supporting their -active lifestyle. Notably, they lack ultrasonic hearing organs, providing no auditory defense against echolocating bats, which influences their restricted activity window to evade nocturnal predators.

Reproduction and behavior

Mating rituals

Males of the ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) form leks in open meadows, where groups of up to 10 individuals gather to perform synchronous hovering displays at , typically lasting 20–30 minutes and starting about 57 minutes after sunset. These displays occur at light intensities between 10.0 and 2.0 , during which the white wings of males become highly conspicuous against the surrounding vegetation, aided by their in wing coloration. During hovering, which involves vertical oscillations approximately 0.5 m above the ground, males emit pheromones from everted brush-like organs on their hind tibiae to attract females; the primary component of this male-produced scent is (E,E)-α-farnesene. Females respond by flying into the lek, landing near a selected male after assessing the group. Male-male competition manifests as aggressive chases and territorial hovering, with individuals eventually spacing 1–5 m apart to maintain display positions. Once a female lands beside a male, courtship culminates in copulation, after which females typically mate only once per season while males engage in multiple matings, as evidenced by observations of distinct males pairing in successive encounters.

Predators and defenses

Adult ghost moths (Hepialus humuli) are primarily targeted by bats, particularly the (Eptesicus nilssonii), which exploits their lekking displays over fields at . Gleaning bats detect these moths acoustically in cluttered environments near vegetation. Larvae face predation from birds, moles, and parasitic wasps, which attack the soil-dwelling stages and can significantly reduce populations in agricultural settings. To counter these threats, ghost moths time their mating lekking to a brief period, minimizing exposure to diurnal birds that cease in low light and reducing encounters with certain species active earlier or later. Lacking ultrasonic hearing organs common in many moths, adults rely on erratic, unpredictable flight patterns when bats approach, which disrupts predation attempts despite the absence of auditory evasion cues. Larvae reside in burrows, where their pale bodies occur in the subterranean environment. Pupae develop underground in cocoons within larval burrows.https://www.bumblebee.org/invertebrates/LepidopteraHepialidae.htm

Ecology

Diet and food plants

The larvae of the ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) are polyphagous root-feeders, recorded on the roots of numerous herbaceous and grasses. Representative host plants include grasses such as meadow grass (Poa spp.) and fescues (Festuca spp.), herbs like plantains (Plantago spp.) and docks (Rumex spp.), as well as cultivated such as (Fragaria × ananassa) and (Lactuca sativa). The larvae tunnel into the roots and basal stems of these hosts, consuming and disrupting nutrient and water transport within the . This feeding strategy supports extended larval development, often spanning two years with multiple overwinterings. Adult ghost moths possess vestigial mouthparts and do not feed during their short lifespan. In northern regions of its range, such as and , larval hosts tend to favor plants characteristic of damp meadows, including moisture-loving grasses and forbs.

Role in ecosystems

The larvae of the ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) extensively in while feeding on plant roots in habitats. As a common inhabitant of rough meadows and grasslands, the ghost moth serves as prey for higher trophic levels, including bats such as Eptesicus nilssonii, which detect and hunt adult males during their dusk lekking flights, thereby integrating the moth into dynamics. Declines in its abundance signal broader reductions in farmland and habitat quality. Adult ghost moths play a minor role in , limited by their short lifespan of a few days and absence of functional mouthparts, which prevents consumption and sustained floral visitation; however, incidental contact with flowers during mating flights may support limited transfer in ecosystems. The species occupies a key niche as a root-feeding in these habitats, linking underground processes to above-ground trophic interactions.

Human interactions

Agricultural impact

The larvae of the ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) primarily damage agricultural crops by feeding on roots and stem bases, leading to , , and plant death in severe cases. In nurseries, this subterranean feeding affects herbaceous plants such as strawberries and , where large populations can cause widespread loss of vigor or outright mortality. In field settings, larvae target root crops like carrots and potatoes, as well as cereals and , by tunneling into roots and severing plants just below the soil surface, resulting in patchy establishment and reduced yields. In modern contexts, particularly organic and regenerative farms, the pest poses a subtle but persistent threat to crops following long-term grasslands, contributing to and uneven development without widespread outbreaks. Overall, it remains a minor, localized pest in the UK as of 2025, with no major national epidemics reported, though localized impacts can still affect crop marketability in vulnerable rotations. Management strategies emphasize integrated pest management (IPM) approaches that avoid broad-spectrum pesticides to preserve beneficial organisms. Cultural practices, such as crop rotation to break the two-year larval life cycle and soil cultivation to expose larvae to predators like birds, moles, and ground beetles, provide effective non-chemical control. Biological options include applying entomopathogenic nematodes (e.g., Steinernema or Heterorhabditis species) to moist soils in spring or autumn, targeting soil-dwelling larvae with high efficacy in garden and nursery settings when temperatures are between 12–20°C. Post-2020 IPM guidelines prioritize these methods alongside monitoring for early damage signs, fostering natural enemies through habitat enhancements like flower-rich margins.

Cultural and folklore significance

In , the ghost moth (Hepialus humuli) has been associated with the souls of the departed due to the males' pale, white wings that create an ethereal appearance during their dusk flights. This belief ties into broader traditions where white moths symbolize spirits or omens of death, particularly in British and Celtic contexts, where their fluttering was seen as restless souls seeking passage. Historical records from 19th-century Britain further link such moths to death omens, with sightings interpreted as harbingers of misfortune or the presence of the deceased. The ghost moth appears in literature as a symbol of the and the haunting past. A possible reference occurs in the final passage of Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights (1847), where the narrator describes watching "moths fluttering among the heath and harebells," evoking the novel's themes of ghostly unrest; this imagery aligns with the ghost moth's habitat and appearance in the moors. In modern culture, the ghost moth features in entomological art and conservation efforts to highlight its symbolic allure and ecological vulnerability. Organizations like Butterfly Conservation incorporate it into awareness campaigns, such as Halloween-themed posts that blend with calls to protect moth habitats, emphasizing its role in education.

References

  1. https://butterfly-conservation.org/moths/ghost-moth
  2. https://www.naturespot.org/species/ghost-moth
  3. https://animalia.bio/ghost-moth?taxonomy=10658
  4. https://habitas.org.uk/priority/species.asp?item=5307
  5. https://www.nic.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/insecta/lepidoptera/exoporia/hepialoidea/hepialidae/hepialus/index.html
  6. https://bugguide.net/node/view/19714
  7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373482167_A_REVISED_WORLD_CATALOGUE_OF_GHOST_MOTHS_LEPIDOPTERA_HEPIALIDAE_WITH_TAXONOMIC_AND_BIOLOGICAL_ANNOTATIONS_A_revised_world_catalogue_of_Ghost_Moths_Lepidoptera_Hepialidae_with_taxonomic_and_biological_
  8. https://arthropodafotos.de/dbsp.php?lang=eng&sc=1&ta=t_45_lep_0_hep&sci=Hepialus&scisp=humuli
  9. https://zenodo.org/records/8292448
  10. https://www.jstor.org/stable/51301
  11. https://www.ukmoths.org.uk/species/hepialus-humuli/
  12. https://animalia.bio/ghost-moth
  13. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Hepialidae
  14. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hepialus
  15. https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/common-enquiries-summer/common-enquiries/
  16. https://zoonova.afriherp.org/documents/Grehan%20et%20al%202023%20ZN28%20Hepialidae%20Cat.pdf
  17. https://jenskjeld.info/artikler/EM-2005_end.pdf
  18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274986983_Phylogeography_of_Hepialus_humuli_L_Lepidoptera_Hepialidae_in_Europe_Short_distance_vs_large_scale_postglacial_expansions_from_multiple_Alpine_refugia_and_taxonomic_implications
  19. https://britishlepidoptera.weebly.com/03-hepialidae.html
  20. https://theraulaz.ch/en/macrophotography/lepidoptera/hepialoidea/hepialidae/
  21. https://biodiversityassociation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Bombici-e-Sfingi-delle-Alpi.pdf
  22. https://www.eje.cz/pdfs/eje/2009/02/19.pdf
  23. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262048444_Sexual_dimorphism_and_geographical_male_polymorphism_in_the_ghost_moth_Hepialus_humuli_Lepidoptera_Hepialidae_Scale_ultrastructure_and_evolutionary_aspects
  24. https://projects.biodiversity.be/lepidoptera/species/3925/
  25. https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article-abstract/80/1/67/2661657
  26. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-entomological-research/article/bionomics-of-swift-moths-ithe-ghost-swift-moth-hepialus-humuli-l/437916619822C5414F50E1B15680E9EE
  27. https://butterfly-conservation.org/sites/default/files/sobm-final-version.pdf
  28. https://www.hantsmoths.org.uk/lep.php?code=03.005
  29. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/205224-Hepialus-humuli
  30. https://www.birdguides.com/species-guide/butterflies-moths/hepialus-humuli/
  31. https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/204/2/199/8755/Detection-of-Prey-in-a-Cluttered-Environment-by
  32. https://www.first-nature.com/insects/lm-hepialus-humuli.php
  33. https://www.ukmoths.org.uk/species/hepialus-humuli/larva/
  34. https://pureportal.coventry.ac.uk/files/4040911/g62-encyclopaedia-of-pests-and-natural-enemies-in-field-crops.pdf
  35. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1998.0440
  36. https://biologer.me/en/groups/28/species/14160
  37. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10455763/
  38. https://threatenedtaxa.org/index.php/JoTT/article/view/3030
  39. https://ahdb.org.uk/knowledge-library/identification-and-management-of-swift-moths-in-field-crops
  40. https://eprints.utas.edu.au/13957/1/1955_Cunningham_Ghost_Moths_Hepialidae.pdf
  41. https://www.bumblebee.org/invertebrates/LepidopteraHepialidae.htm
  42. https://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/hepi/dirempta.html
  43. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-entomological-research/article/abs/bionomics-of-swift-moths-ithe-ghost-swift-moth-hepialus-humuli-l/437916619822C5414F50E1B15680E9EE
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1689211/
  45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227696962_Sex_roles_in_the_ghost_moth_Hepialus_humuli_L_and_a_review_of_mating_in_the_Hepialidae_Lepidoptera
  46. https://pherobase.com/database/species/species-Hepialus-humuli.php
  47. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.1998.0444
  48. https://www.durhammoths.org/taxonomy/hepialidae/hepialus-humuli
  49. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11136606/
  50. http://publicationslist.org/data/thomas.merckx/ref-52/Chapter%25208%2520%28Merckx%2520and%2520Macdonald%29-FINAL%2520VERSION.pdf
  51. https://www.rhs.org.uk/biodiversity/swift-moth-caterpillars
  52. https://projectblue.blob.core.windows.net/media/Default/Imported%20Publication%20Docs/AHDB%20Cereals%20&%20Oilseeds/Pests/Encyclopaedia%20of%20pests%20and%20natural%20enemies%20in%20field%20crops.pdf
  53. https://eutrema.co.uk/ghost-moth-in-cereal-crops-a-subtle-threat-beneath-the-soil/
  54. https://butterfly-conservation.org/news-and-blog/top-five-spooky-moths-from-around-the-world
  55. https://butterfly-conservation.org/news-and-blog/trick-or-treat-discover-10-magical-moths-for-halloween
  56. https://www.icysedgwick.com/moths-folklore/
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