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Greater siren
Temporal range: Blancan–present
↓
 [1]

Secure  (NatureServe)[3]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Urodela
Family: Sirenidae
Genus: Siren
Species:
S. lacertina
Binomial name
Siren lacertina
Linnaeus, 1766

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is an amphibian and one of the five members of the genus Siren. The largest of the sirens and one of the largest amphibians in North America, the greater siren resides in the coastal plains of the southeastern United States.

Description

[edit]

The greater siren is the third longest salamander in the Western Hemisphere.[4] S. lacertina is paedomorphic, as are all sirens. They lack hindlimbs as well as a pelvic girdle, and have external gills all throughout their lives along with small lungs. They lack eyelids, and have an unfused pectoral girdle.[5] Greater sirens measure around 1.5 cm (0.59 in) in length upon hatching and then grow to lengths ranging from 18 to 97 cm (7 to 38 in).[6][7][8] Weight can range from 55 to 1,000 g (1.9 to 35.3 oz).[9][10] Coloration varies throughout their range, but they are generally an olive or gray color with small yellow or green dots on their sides. They have about 36 to 40 costal grooves between their armpits and their cloaca.[8] Younger sirens also have a light stripe along their sides, which fades with age. The front legs, each with four toes, are so small that they can be hidden in the gills. [citation needed]

In terms of sensory organs, greater sirens rely on both a modified Jacobson's organ and a lateral line system over their small eyes. It is possible that they are capable of sensing disturbances in electrical fields.[11]

  • Greater siren skull & hyoid
    Greater siren skull & hyoid
  • Greater siren skeleton
    Greater siren skeleton

Diet

[edit]
Greater siren out of water

Greater sirens are carnivorous and prey upon invertebrates (such as insects, crustaceans, gastropods, bivalves, spiders, molluscs, and crayfish)[11] and aquatic vertebrates (such as small fish)[11] with a possible preference for molluscs (such as snails and freshwater clams),[8][12] although they have been observed to eat vegetation such as vascular plants[13] and algae.[14][11] In addition, materials that are non-animal were found in their digestive tract added to amounts of 75% or greater.[15] Individuals of this species have small teeth to grasp prey,[16] but they contribute little to the mastication of food and does not rupture or grind ingested invertebrates, algae, or plants requiring prior fermentation in the gut.[17]

Ecology and behavior

[edit]

Greater sirens play a crucial role in aquatic food webs and have been described as midlevel predators.[18] Sirens swallow molluscs whole and will pass the shell as waste.[19] They are nocturnal and spend the day in dense vegetation.[11] Their lifespan in the wild is unknown, but in captivity they can live up to 25 years. Greater sirens can vocalize, producing clicks or yelps sounding similar to the call of the American green tree frog.[8] They are able to aestivate for multiple years if necessary, burrowing into mud and exuding a cocoon of dead skin cells. This has been seen during times of drought and hydroperiod fluctuations[20] and might last as long as three years in large individuals with high lipid content.[21] They are also capable of trimodal respiration, with gas exchange occurring across branchial, cutaneous, and pulmonary surfaces.[22] Known predators include the American alligator and the mud snake.[11] Other predators of this species are poorly documented. However, on June 19, 2008, a greater siren was consumed by a two-toed amphiuma, indicating that this species could be an additional predator of the greater siren.[23]

Breeding

[edit]

Their spermatozoa possess a pair of flagella, and their courtship behavior is unknown.[5] Mating occurs in February and March, and females will lay a clutch of about 500 eggs.[24] After the eggs have been laid, the father will continuously fan its tail back and forth over or through the nest. The father will aggressively guard the nest from potential threats, including other sirens, and even the mother of the clutch. After 2 months, the eggs hatch, and the fathers depart from the nest.[25] Youth live in shallower water than adults, often among the roots of water hyacinths.[11]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Greater sirens inhabit the coastal plain from Washington, D.C., to Florida and Alabama.[2] A population of sirens in the Rio Grande around Texas and Tamaulipas in Mexico was tentatively determined to be S. lacertina; however, recent studies have refuted this claim. Greater sirens live in wetlands, preferring those with a slow or nonexistent current and a thick layer of organic material. They are capable of inhabiting seasonal and permanent wetlands given their ability to aestivate,[8] and will burrow into mud if their wetland dries up.[2] They are predominately found in the deep benthic zone where aquatic insects are most abundant.[26] Associated habitat for greater sirens includes vegetative ditches, and various other forms of slow, or stagnant bodies of water. Often during the day, they seek refuges from predators and are found under logs and various other structures.[27]

Interaction with humans

[edit]

Trapping techniques

[edit]

S. lacertina is difficult to capture because of their preference for areas with thick vegetation. Standard methods such as dip-netting, seining, and dredges are ineffective in such habitats. The use of aquatic funnel traps, commercially produced to capture crayfish, has been found effective for use on Siren and Amphiuma species and there is no risk of drowning the animals. Each trap consists of the trap body, three funnels, and a neck with a lid at the top.[28]

Conservation

[edit]

Greater sirens are classified as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although they have been extirpated from some of their former range due to habitat loss. They are protected under Mexican law and are assigned to the "Special Protection" category.[2]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Greater siren

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is a fully aquatic salamander and one of the largest amphibians in North America, characterized by its elongated, eel-like body, external gills, and reduced forelimbs with no hind limbs. Adults typically measure 50–70 cm in length, though some reach up to 97 cm, with olive to grayish-brown skin marked by black speckles and yellow dashes, and 36–40 costal grooves along the sides. This nocturnal species inhabits slow-moving or still freshwater environments such as swamps, ponds, ditches, lakes, and streams, where it burrows into soft mud or hides among dense aquatic vegetation during the day. Native to the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains of the , the greater siren's range extends from southward through and westward to eastern . It is a carnivorous opportunist, feeding primarily on aquatic invertebrates like , crustaceans, and mollusks, as well as small and amphibians, using its small to suction prey. The species breathes through both and lungs, supplemented by skin respiration, allowing it to survive in low-oxygen waters and even aestivate in mud cocoons for extended dry periods—up to several years in captivity. Reproduction occurs in late winter, typically to , with females laying clutches of around 500 eggs in gelatinous masses attached to submerged ; is provided until after about two months, though the exact fertilization mechanism remains undocumented and is presumed external. While generally common in the core of its range and listed as Least Concern by the IUCN, populations face localized threats from habitat loss due to drainage and , leading to endangered status in areas like . In , greater sirens can live up to 25 years, highlighting their resilience in suitable conditions.

Taxonomy

Etymology and discovery

The common name "greater siren" reflects the species' placement in the genus Siren, derived from the Greek seirēn (Σειρήν), referring to the mythological sirens—half-woman, half-bird creatures famed for their alluring songs—which likely alludes to the animal's eerie vocalizations and its serpentine, aquatic body that evoked mythical sea beings in early observers. The specific epithet lacertina originates from the Latin lacerta, meaning "," highlighting the elongated, scaly-skinned form that early observers perceived as lizard-like despite its predominant eel-shaped morphology. European naturalists first encountered the greater siren during colonial explorations of North American wetlands, where its unusual appearance led to frequent misidentification as an or serpentine . In his seminal work The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, Mark Catesby illustrated and described it in 1731–1743, capturing specimens from marshes and noting their anguilliform (eel-like) body, , and reduced limbs, which confounded early classifiers amid limited knowledge of diversity. This depiction built on even earlier vague accounts in European . The species received its formal scientific description in 1766 as Siren lacertina in a dissertation presided over by Carl Linnaeus, based primarily on Catesby's illustrations and reports from Carolina swamps, establishing it as a distinct taxon and marking one of the earliest documented North American amphibians in Linnaean taxonomy. By 1836, American herpetologist John Edwards Holbrook reassigned it to the genus Siren—coined to evoke its mythical allure—in his comprehensive North American Herpetology, recognizing its salamander affinities and separating it from true lizards based on anatomical examinations of southeastern specimens. This reclassification underscored the greater siren's role as a pivotal example in the evolving understanding of New World herpetofauna, bridging colonial observations with systematic zoology and highlighting the challenges of classifying paedomorphic aquatic forms in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Classification

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is classified within the domain Eukaryota, kingdom Animalia, Chordata, class Amphibia, order Urodela, Sirenidae, genus Siren, and S. lacertina (Linnaeus, 1766). This hierarchical placement situates it among the tailed amphibians, characterized by their elongated bodies and aquatic lifestyles. As a member of the Sirenidae, the greater siren belongs to a group of paedomorphic salamanders that retain larval features, such as , throughout their lives, distinguishing them from metamorphosing urodeles. Within , the genus Siren is the to Pseudobranchus (the dwarf sirens), with the two genera comprising the entirety of the family's extant diversity; Pseudobranchus species are smaller and exhibit more restricted distributions. No are currently recognized for S. lacertina, although has been documented across its range, reflecting population-level differences without sufficient divergence for taxonomic subdivision. Recent taxonomic revisions, informed by morphological and molecular analyses, confirm S. lacertina as one of three in the Siren, alongside the lesser siren (S. intermedia) and the (S. reticulata). The description of S. reticulata in 2018 was based on distinct reticulate pigmentation, costal groove counts (38–42), and divergence (e.g., sequences showing 76% bootstrap support for its position as sister to the S. lacertina–S. intermedia ). These studies up to 2022 underscore the of Siren within , with no further splits proposed for the greater siren itself.

Description

Physical characteristics

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) exhibits an eel-like body form, characterized by its elongated, paedomorphic morphology that retains larval traits into adulthood, including persistent . It lacks hindlimbs, eyelids, and scales, with small forelimbs bearing four toes each and three bushy slits positioned behind the head. The body features 36–40 costal grooves along its sides, a compressed comprising 26–40% of total length with dorsal and ventral fins, and a round cross-section overall, adapted for an entirely aquatic lifestyle. In terms of size, adults typically measure 50–70 cm in total length, though some reach up to 98 cm. It is one of the longest salamanders in by length, second to the two-toed amphiuma (Amphiuma means). Hatchlings are typically about 1.5 cm at hatching, though some reports suggest up to 16 cm. Weights vary from 55–1,000 g, reflecting their robust build among North American amphibians. Coloration in the greater siren is variable, generally olive to light gray on the dorsal surface, often accented with small or dots and irregular dark spots on the head, back, and sides. The ventral surface is paler, typically bluish-gray with pale flecks, while the sides may show lighter tones. Juveniles often display more pronounced light stripes that fade with age, and overall pigmentation can darken in densely vegetated habitats compared to open waters.

Physiology

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) exhibits trimodal respiration, utilizing , skin, and lungs to facilitate in its primarily aquatic environment. serve as the primary site for oxygen uptake in , accounting for up to 61% of total oxygen consumption at temperatures between 5°C and 25°C, with the gills absorbing approximately twice as much oxygen as the skin under these conditions. The lungs remain functional and enable air breathing, particularly during periods of low dissolved oxygen in ; pulmonary becomes more critical as oxygen levels drop, allowing the siren to surface and gulp air. through the skin supplements both branchial and pulmonary pathways, contributing significantly to overall oxygen and exchange, especially in cooler temperatures where it can represent up to 40% of total uptake. In terms of sensory systems, the greater siren lacks eyelids and possesses small eyes with poor , rendering eyesight of limited utility in the often murky, low-light habitats it occupies. Instead, it relies heavily on the system, a network of mechanoreceptors along the body that detects water vibrations and movements, aiding in navigation and environmental awareness. Chemosensory detection is facilitated by pits on the head and a modified Jacobson's organ (), which allows the siren to sense chemical cues in the water for prey localization and other interactions. Physiological adaptations enable the greater siren to endure environmental stresses, including and poor . During dry periods, it aestivates by burrowing into and secreting a cocoon from shed , which minimizes water loss and allows survival for up to three years while reducing metabolic rate by up to 70%, with oxygen consumption and dropping significantly. This demonstrates high tolerance to low oxygen conditions, with some individuals acting as oxygen conformers that adjust uptake based on availability and others as regulators maintaining steady levels down to critical tensions around 92 mmHg. It also exhibits resilience to acidic waters, effectively regulating acid-base balance during environmental through metabolic adjustments without reliance on elevated . In captivity, greater sirens have a lifespan of up to 25 years, reflecting their robust physiological framework.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is distributed across the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains of the , ranging from the vicinity of , southward through the eastern seaboard to southern , including the , and westward along the Gulf Coast to southwestern . This distribution encompasses a broad swath of lowland aquatic habitats, with the species generally absent from upland or interior regions beyond the coastal plains. Reports of populations in the Rio Grande drainage of southern and northeastern have been noted, but genetic analyses indicate these individuals likely represent a distinct lineage or undescribed species rather than S. lacertina, excluding them from the confirmed range. Historically, the greater siren's range appears largely consistent with its current distribution, as documented since early descriptions in the 18th and 19th centuries, though local extirpations may have occurred along northern margins, such as in parts of and , potentially due to and habitat alteration. No confirmed introduced populations exist outside the native range, with all known occurrences attributable to natural dispersal or relictual groups. Within its range, the greater siren exhibits continuous distribution in lowland coastal areas, particularly in the southeastern states, but becomes discontinuous in higher elevations or fragmented landscapes where suitable aquatic connectivity is limited. Population densities are notably higher in wetland-rich regions of , southeastern Georgia, and eastern , where the species can achieve abundances exceeding those in peripheral areas.

Habitat preferences

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) primarily inhabits slow-moving or stagnant freshwater bodies such as swamps, marshes, ditches, ponds, canals, and vegetated shallows of lakes, where it favors environments rich in dense aquatic vegetation and soft, organic substrates. These habitats provide cover and foraging opportunities, with the siren often associating with floating plants like water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), whose extensive root systems offer shelter, particularly for juveniles. Within these aquatic systems, the greater siren exhibits a strong preference for deeper benthic microhabitats (42-70 cm depth), characterized by mud or thick organic muck substrates that facilitate burrowing and concealment. It avoids areas with fast currents, instead selecting still or sluggishly flowing waters with minimal disturbance. This microhabitat selection aligns with its benthic lifestyle, where it remains hidden during daylight hours amid submerged and layers. The species maintains an obligately aquatic existence year-round in permanent or semi-permanent wetlands but aestivates during seasonal droughts in ephemeral habitats by burrowing into mud and forming a protective cocoon from secretions, a linked to its specialized physiology for prolonged resistance. This allows survival in contracting or drying water bodies until reflooding occurs, often extending for months or even years.

Ecology and behavior

Diet and foraging

The greater siren has a diet dominated by animal prey but including substantial plant material. Analyses of gut and fecal contents indicate that molluscs, including snails (e.g., species from families , Physidae, and Ampullariidae such as Pomacea spp.) and clams, are the primary invertebrate food source, occurring in approximately 85% of samples. Other invertebrates consumed include crustaceans like (Decapoda, ~8% frequency), insects (e.g., Diptera larvae), worms, amphipods, and rotifers. Vertebrate prey is infrequent, limited to small (~2% frequency, such as minnows) and occasionally amphibian larvae or eggs, constrained by the siren's small gape. Plant matter, consisting of , vascular plants, and , is present in nearly 100% of samples and comprises over 75% of ingested by volume; gut microbes facilitate of this material, allowing nutrient absorption through facultative herbivory or incidental ingestion during feeding. As a mid-level predator in aquatic food webs, the greater siren plays a key role in controlling populations, particularly molluscs. Dietary composition exhibits seasonal variation, with higher intake of molluscs during wetter periods such as summer, when prey availability increases in flooded habitats; fish consumption may rise opportunistically during extended flooding. These shifts reflect adaptations to fluctuating prey abundance in dynamic environments. The greater siren forages nocturnally as an active bottom-dweller in and , employing a gape-and-suck mechanism to engulf prey whole. It detects using chemosensory pits on the head and the system for hydrodynamic cues, allowing precise location in low-visibility conditions; visual cues play a minor role. This strategy enables efficient capture of buried or hidden items like snails and small fish without pursuit.

Activity patterns and predators

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is strictly nocturnal, emerging from hiding to forage and move about primarily at night while retreating to burrows, dense , or under during the day to avoid diurnal predators and . During periods of when habitats dry up, individuals aestivate by burrowing into mud and forming a protective cocoon from skin secretions, remaining dormant for months until water returns. In response to flooding events, greater sirens may undertake short-distance movements across temporarily connected wetlands, facilitating limited dispersal among isolated aquatic habitats. Greater sirens produce distinctive vocalizations, including bark-like yelps and clicks, which are rare among salamanders and typically occur when individuals are disturbed or handled. These sounds, likened to the calls of green treefrogs (Dryophytes cinereus) or ducklings, may serve defensive functions by startling potential threats or signaling during intraspecific interactions, though their exact role in territoriality remains under study. As mid-level aquatic predators themselves, greater sirens face predation from a variety of larger animals, including American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis), wading birds such as great blue herons (Ardea herodias), large fish like bass, mud snakes (Farancia abacura), and occasionally the two-toed amphiuma (Amphiuma means). To evade capture, they employ rapid wriggling motions characteristic of their eel-like body and secrete copious sticky mucus from skin glands, which can deter grasping by predators or facilitate slippage from their grip. Vocalizations may also contribute to these anti-predator behaviors by producing startling noises during encounters.

Reproduction

Breeding biology

The breeding season of the greater siren (Siren lacertina) typically spans February to March in the southern portion of its range, with activity potentially extending into April or later in northern populations; this timing is associated with rising water temperatures above 15–20°C and increased rainfall that floods shallow habitats. Courtship and behaviors remain largely unobserved in the wild for the greater siren, though is presumed based on anatomical studies and family-level traits in . Unlike many salamanders, is absent due to the ' elongate, eel-like body form; males likely release directly over eggs as females deposit them, potentially guided by chemical cues such as pheromones, though specific attraction mechanisms are unconfirmed. Parental care is poorly documented for the greater siren, with few nests observed in nature and conflicting reports from limited studies. Clutch sizes average around 500 eggs, laid singly or in small clusters attached to submerged , , or the bottom, with totals potentially reaching 1,400 based on ovarian follicle counts in one female.

Egg laying and development

Females of the greater siren (Siren lacertina) deposit eggs during late winter to early spring, typically from February to April, following external fertilization. Eggs are laid singly or in small clusters of 2–5, with total clutch sizes averaging around 500, though one dissected female contained approximately 1,400 ovarian follicles. These eggs, measuring about 4 mm in diameter with a thick outer jelly capsule, resemble small grapes and adhere loosely to one another or to submerged vegetation and aquatic plants in shallow water. The eggs incubate for approximately two months in these protected sites, hatching in late April to early May. Upon hatching, larvae measure 13–16 mm in total length, featuring prominent external gills for respiration, a flattened fin-like tail for propulsion, and reduced forelimbs similar to adults. Unlike many amphibians, greater sirens exhibit paedomorphosis, retaining these larval traits—such as external gills and an entirely aquatic lifestyle—indefinitely, with no metamorphosis to a terrestrial form. Larval growth is rapid initially, influenced by water temperature and food availability, with hatchlings reaching about 100 mm snout-vent length (SVL) in their first year and 200 mm SVL by the second year. Average growth rates decline with size, from 0.48 mm per day in the first growth phase (13–100 mm SVL) to 0.35 mm per day in the second (100–200 mm SVL), and further to around 0.13 mm per day beyond 200 mm SVL. is attained by the third or fourth year of life, at sizes of approximately 200–250 mm SVL, allowing individuals to begin reproducing while maintaining their neotenic morphology.

Conservation and human interactions

Conservation status

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is assessed as Least Concern on the due to its wide distribution and presumed large population across its core range in the . Populations are generally stable, though local declines have been noted in urbanized areas where habitats are fragmented. The species remains abundant in central portions of its range, such as , Georgia, and eastern , where it occupies extensive aquatic systems. However, distribution is patchier at the periphery, with some local populations reduced, including in parts of , where it is ranked as Vulnerable (S3). In , it is considered Endangered due to habitat loss and rarity. Monitoring efforts have incorporated (eDNA) methods since 2021 to detect presence in challenging habitats, improving detection rates for this cryptic species without direct capture. In , where isolated populations occur in the northeastern valley, the greater siren is classified as Amenazada (Threatened) under the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 norm, providing legal protections against collection and habitat alteration. In the United States, it lacks federal listing, but habitats essential to its survival are safeguarded through provisions of the Clean Water Act, which regulate pollution and development impacts.

Human uses and threats

The greater siren (Siren lacertina) is occasionally utilized by anglers as , often mistaken for eels due to its elongated body and aquatic habits, though this trade is largely unreported and limited in scale. There is no evidence of commercial harvest for the pet trade or other markets, with sales records in indicating negligible reported activity for this species. In ecological research, greater sirens are frequently studied to understand , use, and responses to environmental stressors, with methods including mark-recapture techniques via passive integrated tags to track individuals over extended periods. Human activities pose several direct threats to greater siren populations, primarily through via wetland drainage, , and coastal , which fragment and reduce available aquatic refuges. from runoff associated with development further degrades in their preferred swampy and vegetated habitats, increasing vulnerability to contaminants. Road mortality is another concern, particularly during flood events when sirens may migrate overland; surveys along highways have documented multiple instances of greater siren road-kills, highlighting the impact of infrastructure on dispersal. Competition and disease transmission from , such as non-native fish or amphibians in altered wetlands, add indirect pressures, though specific interactions with greater sirens remain understudied. For population surveys and research, greater sirens are effectively captured using aquatic funnel traps, such as commercially available crayfish traps with multiple entry funnels and mesh linings to minimize injury; these are deployed in shallow vegetated waters without bait, checked daily, and allow for non-lethal sampling in dense habitats where other methods like seining fail. Electrofishing is sometimes employed but requires caution due to the species' external gills, which may increase susceptibility to electrical stress, though backpack units have been used successfully in targeted surveys.

References

  1. https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Siren_lacertina/
  2. https://srelherp.uga.edu/salamanders/greater-siren/
  3. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/20387/118281642
  4. https://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com/amphibians/salamanders/greater-siren/index.php
  5. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstreams/5f45261d-95c3-4e8b-aadc-9a956c349cb5/download
  6. https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4316
  7. https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Sirenidae.shtml
  8. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0207460
  9. https://auth1.dpr.ncparks.gov/amphibians/view.php?sort_order_num=2.0
  10. https://srelherp.uga.edu/salamanders/two-toed-amphiuma/
  11. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/27864-Siren-lacertina
  12. https://ag.purdue.edu/department/extension/hellbender/_docs/ultsch-gas-exchange.pdf
  13. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0300962973904167
  14. https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1150&context=bio_fac
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256296807_Water_balance_in_estivating_sirenid_salamanders_Siren_lacertina
  16. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28312769/
  17. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0034568782900706
  18. https://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Siren_lacertina
  19. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.106536/Siren_lacertina
  20. https://www.tomluhring.com/uploads/8/5/7/2/85729142/schalk_et_al_2010_amphibia-reptilia.pdf
  21. https://dwr.virginia.gov/wildlife/information/greater-siren/
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228479802_Summer_microhabitat_use_of_the_Greater_Siren_Siren_lacertina_and_Two-toed_Amphiuma_Amphiuma_means_in_an_isolated_wetland
  23. https://bio.davidson.edu/herpcons/herps_of_nc/salamanders/Sirlac/Sir_lac.html
  24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1443585
  25. https://scholarship.miami.edu/esploro/outputs/graduate/The-Ecology-Conservation-and-Management-of-the/991031449285502976
  26. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232669869_Gastrointestinal_Fermentation_in_Greater_Sirens_Siren_lacertina
  27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250071247_Vagility_of_Aquatic_Salamanders_Implications_for_Wetland_Connectivity
  28. https://openscholar.uga.edu/record/18617/files/luhring_thomas_m_200805_ms.pdf
  29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242394885_A_Note_on_Predation_of_the_Greater_Siren_Siren_lacertina
  30. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258050087_Population_Ecology_of_Greater_Siren_Siren_lacertina
  31. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1984&context=bioscifacpub
  32. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666765721001344
  33. https://www.profepa.gob.mx/innovaportal/file/3552/1/nom-059-semarnat-2010__30-dic-2010.pdf
  34. https://seafwa.org/sites/default/files/journal-articles/ENGE-403-413.pdf
  35. https://app.myfwc.com/FWRI/herp/HerpResults.aspx?RefNo=3540
  36. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222537915_Effectiveness_of_a_barrier_wall_and_culverts_in_reducing_wildlife_mortality_on_a_heavily_traveled_highway_in_Florida
  37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370426470_The_Role_of_Invasive_Species_and_Charismatic_Megafauna_in_Everglades_Herpetofaunal_Research
  38. https://ufwildlife.ifas.ufl.edu/pdfs/johnson_barichivich2004sirentrap.pdf
  39. http://parcplace.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/SalamanderNewsMay.pdf
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