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A typewriter ribbon with black ink in a mechanical typewriter

An ink ribbon or inked ribbon is an expendable assembly serving the function of transferring pigment to paper in various devices for impact printing. Since such assemblies were first widely used on typewriters, they were often called typewriter ribbons, but ink ribbons were already in use with other printing and marking devices. Ink ribbons are part of standard designs for hand- or motor-driven typewriters, teleprinters, stenotype machines, computer-driven printers, and many mechanical calculators. Thousands of varieties of ink ribbons and ribbon cartridges have been produced, and are available from stationery suppliers.

Description

[edit]
Woman holding typewriter ribbon at Royal Typewriter, c. 1930s

The prototypical assembly consists of a length of a medium, either pigment-impregnated woven ribbon or pigment-coated polymer tape, and a transport mechanism involving two axles. At any given moment, most of the length of the medium is wound as a close-spaced spiral around one axle or the other, tight enough for friction among turns to make it behave mostly like a solid cylinder. Rotation of the axles moves the ribbon or tape after each impact and usually aids in maintaining tension along the roughly straight-line path of the medium between the axles. The assembly may itself include mechanisms that control the tension in the temporarily unwound portion of the medium, or the typewriter/printer ribbon-advance mechanism may control the tension.

Some typewriter ribbons have two different colored pigments (usually black and red) running in parallel along the length of the ribbon. These ribbons are used with typewriters which have a selection lever ("bichrome ribbon switch") to slightly raise or lower the ribbon, so the typebars will print either color, as desired.[1]

Multi-strike (fabric) ribbons

[edit]
Four-color fabric ribbon cartridge for a dot-matrix printer
Ribbon cartridge with internal spools (cover removed)

Woven fabric typewriter ribbons were the first kind to be developed. With them, the pigment is an ink that dries on typing paper but not on the ribbon, and the ribbon is mounted at each end to a flanged reel whose hub engages with one of the axles. Only the axle onto which the ribbon is winding is driven, and the ribbon assembly is intended to work with an axle-driving mechanism that reverses the direction of rotation when the undriven axle reaches the point where there is almost no ribbon left wound around it.

Thus, the full length of the ribbon shuttles back and forth between reels, and each position along it is struck twice in each cycle of the ribbon's motion (once in the right-to-left phase and once in the left-to-right). This process can proceed indefinitely, until a depleting ink supply causes the typed characters to become unacceptably faint. Reversal of the ribbon was often controlled manually in early machines,[2] but automatic reversal mechanisms became popular later.

An operator who judges a ribbon's ink supply to be too depleted typically manually winds the whole ribbon onto the fuller reel, releasing it from the empty one, and discarding the ribbon and the reel on which it is wound. It is replaced with a new ribbon that is purchased already wound on a single compatible reel. The attachment between reel and ribbon typically involves one grommet at each end of the ribbon that pierces the ribbon and engages with a hook on the hub of the corresponding reel. There often is a small grommet or eyelet near each end of the ribbon, which activates an automatic ribbon-reversal feature of the ribbon-advance mechanism.[3]

An alternative design encloses two pre-threaded spools within a single disposable ribbon cartridge, eliminating the need to manually thread a messy ink ribbon. Cartridge designs are often used with higher-speed automatic printers, or ribbons with multiple inks used for color printing. Heavy-duty high-speed line printers may use wider ink ribbons, ranging up to the full width of a 132-column printout, nominally 14 inches (360 mm).

Another alternative design omits the spools, and simply stuffs inked ribbon into a plastic box through a narrow vertical slot, pulling it out the other end as needed. The box and ribbon are proportioned to avoid tangling inside the box. The ends of the ribbon are joined in an endless loop, so that a ribbon reversing mechanism is not needed. Some of these spool-less cartridge designs make a half-twist in the ribbon before joining it up into a loop, resulting in a Möbius strip. This is done to distribute wear and ink depletion more evenly throughout the ribbon, making it last longer.

Ink-depleted fabric ribbons can be re-inked to allow re-use,[4][1] but this may be a messy procedure; many used fabric ribbons are instead discarded, along with the spool which they were wound around, or as part of a cartridge assembly. The de facto standard width of typewriter ribbons is 0.5 inches (13 mm),[3] but some ribbon spools are no longer manufactured, requiring owners of vintage machines to re-ink used ribbons and/or to re-spool new ribbon onto their vintage spools.[5]

  • Large ink ribbon cartridge installed in a dot-matrix printer
    Large ink ribbon cartridge installed in a dot-matrix printer
  • Spool-less ink ribbon cartridge with and without cover
    Spool-less ink ribbon cartridge with and without cover
  • Wide ink ribbon can be seen at right of this opened IBM 1403 line printer
    Wide ink ribbon can be seen at right of this opened IBM 1403 line printer

Single-pass (polymer) ribbons

[edit]

The IBM Selectric typewriter required ribbons of polymer (plastic) tape and popularized their use, even with other manufacturers. This type of ribbon is sometimes called a "carbon ribbon".

With this newer medium, the entire impacted area of the pigment coating adheres to the paper and transfers from the ribbon, producing typed copy with greater uniformity of character shape, reflecting a sharper contrast between the unmarked paper and the pigmented characters compared to cloth ribbons. This produces a clearer, easier-to-read printed image which looks more "professional" in printed documents.

However, the full-depth transfer of the pigment renders multiple passes over the same length of the ribbon unworkable, so the assembly is discarded after a single pass through its length. Because polymer tape is much thinner and more easily tangled than cloth ribbon, it usually is packaged in an enclosed cartridge with two spools, eliminating the need to manually thread a delicate ribbon onto an empty spool.

Deducing what has been typed by inspection of the used ribbon is far more practicable and reliable than with a cloth ribbon, so some users ensure secure destruction (shredding) of discarded one-time ribbons in order to prevent unintended disclosure of typed documents.

  • Typewriter ribbon cartridge with polymer tape
    Typewriter ribbon cartridge with polymer tape
  • Ribbon cartridge with cover removed
    Ribbon cartridge with cover removed
  • Used polymer ribbon reveals what has been typed
    Used polymer ribbon reveals what has been typed


History

[edit]

There were many different schemes to supply ink to early typewriters, including ink-soaked rollers, ink pads, and rubberized cloth strips.[5] Eventually, ink ribbons emerged as the de facto standard method of supplying ink for impact printers of all types.[1]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ink ribbon

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
An ink ribbon is a narrow, expendable strip of fabric or thin film material impregnated or coated with , designed for use in impact printing devices such as typewriters and dot-matrix printers, where mechanical force from type elements or print heads presses the ribbon against to transfer and form characters or images. In modern applications, ink ribbons also refer to thermal transfer variants, consisting of a or mylar base coated with , , or a hybrid formulation that melts under heat from a print head to bond to labels, tags, or materials. These ribbons revolutionized and labeling by enabling efficient, repeatable transfer without direct manual application, though they have largely been supplanted by methods in everyday use. The history of ink ribbons traces back to the 1870s, coinciding with the commercialization of typewriters by inventors like , where early ribbons made from or cotton saturated with oil-based s replaced messy pen-and- writing for business correspondence and records. By the early , their adoption surged as typewriters became standard in offices, with U.S. government standards established by 1925 to ensure quality in fabric thread count (at least 140 threads per inch) and durability for record-keeping. Advancements in the mid-20th century introduced fabrics for greater longevity and smoother performance, while the rise of dot-matrix printers in the 1970s extended ribbon use to automated ; today, transfer ribbons dominate industrial applications, offering resistance to chemicals, abrasion, and heat in environments like and . Key types of ink ribbons include traditional multi-strike fabric varieties, which absorb into materials like or for repeated use (up to thousands of impressions per section), and single-pass ribbons, such as carbon-coated or types that provide sharper, one-time transfers for high-quality output. Composition varies by application: ribbons typically feature pigments or dyes suspended in slow-drying oils (e.g., ) or waxes with additives like glycerine for mechanical types, or water-soluble bases for purposes, while ribbons use layered wax-resin formulations in black, red, or specialty colors to suit substrates like , synthetics, or foils. Despite their decline in consumer settings due to inkjet and alternatives, ink ribbons remain essential for durable, cost-effective printing in specialized fields, with ongoing innovations focusing on eco-friendly, recyclable materials.

Definition and Description

Physical Structure

An ink ribbon is fundamentally a narrow strip of inked material, typically measuring 1/2 inch (13 mm) in width, though some early or specialty models may use 3/4 inch (19 mm), and extending typically 7 to 15 meters (23 to 49 feet) in length, wound onto spools for use in impact printing devices such as typewriters and printers. These ribbons are available in several common formats to accommodate different devices and user needs. The traditional spool-to-spool design features a supply spool and a take-up spool, allowing the ribbon to advance unidirectionally to ensure fresh exposure during . Cartridge-loaded formats encase the in a self-contained unit for simplified installation and reduced mess, prevalent in modern typewriters and some printers. Endless loop designs, often used in printers, form a continuous circuit without spools, enabling repeated passes until the ink depletes. Color variations enhance functionality and aesthetics. Standard black ribbons provide basic text printing, while red/black dual-color options allow switching between pigments for emphasis or accounting purposes via a selector mechanism. Specialty colors, such as , are employed for creative applications in compatible machines; correction uses separate lift-off tapes, typically . Standard spools measure approximately 2 inches (50 mm) in diameter, facilitating compatibility across many devices, with ribbon lengths varying from 5 to 20 meters based on the printer or typewriter model to balance portability and yield.

Operational Mechanism

The operational mechanism of an in impact printing devices, such as and printers, relies on physical to transfer to the . When a key is pressed on a , the typebar or impacts the ribbon, crushing it against the paper and releasing through localized that embeds the into the paper fibers. Similarly, in printers, solenoid-driven pins in the print head strike the ribbon in precise patterns, transferring as discrete dots to form characters or images via the same -based process. Ribbon movement ensures a fresh inked surface for each print operation, typically advancing via a ratchet mechanism in manual typewriters linked to the key or spacebar, or by an in powered devices and printers. In typewriters, this advancement occurs intermittently with each keystroke, often by a of an inch, using gears and clutches to wind the from a supply spool to a take-up spool. printers employ a similar motorized feed, where the advances continuously or stepwise, synchronized with the print head movement to align fresh ribbon sections under the pins during printing. Multi-strike capability in certain ribbons allows sections to be reused for multiple impacts—up to 3 to 5 times—before significant ink depletion, achieved through slower advancement rates or specialized ink formulations that maintain legibility over repeated strikes. Key concepts in ribbon operation include ink saturation levels, which directly influence print density; as the ribbon progresses and ink transfers, saturation decreases, resulting in progressively lighter impressions until replacement is needed. Some advanced ribbons incorporate correction mechanisms, where a separate lift-off tape or compatible film ribbon allows overstriking to remove erroneous ink by adhesive lift-off, enabling clean error correction without paper damage. In typewriters, the ribbon mechanism often includes a vertical shift driven by the linkage, positioning the ribbon higher or lower relative to the platen for upper- and lowercase to optimize transfer alignment. In printers, ribbon advancement is synchronized with the or head movement, ensuring consistent positioning across the print line without manual intervention.

Types of Ink Ribbons

Fabric Ribbons

Fabric ribbons are porous fabrics impregnated with , designed to transfer pigment to through impact printing in typewriters. The , which is and absorbed into the fabric, distributes uniformly via capillarity, allowing the ribbon to replenish depleted areas and support multiple from the same section. This multi-strike capability allows for thousands of across the ribbon's sections before significant overall depletion, with partial recovery possible after a brief rest period of about 20 minutes. These ribbons offer key advantages for high-volume , including cost-effectiveness due to their reusability and widespread production, as well as consistent ink distribution that maintains even print quality over extended use. They were particularly common in early to mid-20th century typewriters, serving as the standard for and tasks during that . In contrast to single-strike film ribbons, fabric types emphasize through repeated strikes rather than one-time precision. However, fabric ribbons have notable drawbacks, such as gradual fading of print quality after repeated impressions, particularly if the becomes excessively oily. Over-saturation can also lead to , which complicates corrections and erasures on the printed page. Replacement is eventually necessary to restore optimal performance.

Film Ribbons

Film ribbons consist of a thin substrate, such as or , coated with on one side; they can be designed for either single-strike or multi-strike operation in impact printing devices, though single-strike variants are common for precision applications. In single-strike film ribbons, each segment of the ribbon transfers once upon impact before being irreversibly advanced or discarded, ensuring no reuse of the same area. These ribbons gained prominence in the 1970s, particularly through the introduction of correctable variants with the Correcting Selectric II electric in 1973. The correctable film ribbon features a specialized formulation that deposits on the paper surface without penetration, paired with lift-off tape containing an adhesive layer to remove erroneous characters cleanly. They were widely adopted in electric typewriters for their precision and later appeared in early printers to support high-fidelity output. The single-strike mechanism delivers crisp, consistent print quality by providing uniform ink density without fading from repeated impressions, unlike multi-strike fabric ribbons which deplete over time. Additionally, the surface-adhering minimizes smearing and facilitates error correction, making film ribbons suitable for applications demanding clean, high-resolution results, including carbonless copy production through controlled impact transfer. Despite these benefits, film ribbons incur higher costs due to their disposable, single-use design, necessitating more frequent replacements than economical fabric alternatives. Their operation also demands precise feeding systems to advance the accurately after each character strike, adding mechanical complexity to compatible devices.

Materials and Manufacturing

Ribbon Substrates

The substrate of an ink ribbon forms the foundational carrier for the ink layer, determining key performance attributes through its inherent physical characteristics. For fabric-based ribbons, porosity enables effective ink absorption and retention, while tensile strength ensures the material can endure repeated winding and unwinding without tearing. Flexibility is equally critical, allowing the ribbon to conform to spool mechanisms and resist breakage under mechanical stress. These properties collectively influence the ribbon's suitability for impact printing applications, balancing ink distribution with operational reliability. Early ink ribbons relied on natural fiber substrates, with emerging as the predominant choice due to its high absorbency, which facilitated deep ink impregnation for consistent transfer during typing. Cotton ribbons dominated from the late until the early 1950s, offering a cost-effective base that soaked up oil-based inks effectively, though they were prone to faster wear from . , another natural fiber, was favored for premium applications in the early , valued for its finer weave and smoother surface that promoted even ink release and sharper character impressions in high-end models. The introduction of synthetic substrates marked a significant evolution, beginning in the early 1950s with , which provided superior durability over by better resisting abrasion from faster electric mechanisms. Nylon's non-porous structure held in surface interstices rather than absorbing it fully, resulting in longer usable life and more uniform performance across extended use. This shift from natural to synthetic fibers post-World War II emphasized manufacturing consistency, reduced variability in quality, and supported the demands of industrialized production. In modern contexts, particularly for film ribbons, polyester films such as serve as the primary substrate, offering a thin, non-absorbent base that enables precise, single- or multi-strike transfer without the need for . These synthetic films excel in tensile strength and flexibility, making them ideal for high-speed impact printers while minimizing drying or degradation over time. Substrates like thus enhance strike capability by ensuring clean, controlled release under pressure.

Ink Formulations

Ink formulations for ribbons are tailored to enable precise transfer under mechanical impact while maintaining stability on the substrate. For fabric ribbons, oil-based inks predominate, featuring pigments like dispersed in a vehicle comprising oils and waxes to ensure and . According to a 1941 NIST technical circular, serves as the primary pigment for black inks, often toned with blue or violet dyes such as nigrosine to achieve a neutral black hue, while binders include mineral oils, vegetable oils like castor or , and liquid waxes such as to prevent solidification and promote even flow during use. Additives in these formulations enhance performance, including wetting agents for better dispersion and colorants for multi-hue ribbons, with drying occurring through slow or oxidation rather than rapid solvents. A representative early composition, detailed in a , consists of 4 parts lampblack (), 2 parts (for lubrication and pigmentation), 0.5 parts , and ammonium oleate as a binder formed via partial with water, yielding a stiff, putty-like mass suitable for application. The preparation for fabric ribbons involves impregnation, where the is saturated by passing it through an bath or a series of rollers that squeeze out excess material for uniform distribution. In contrast, film ribbons employ wax-resin based inks, typically comprising pigments like in a binder of polyamide resins, plasticizers such as dioctyl phthalate, and additives including hydrogenated and petrolatum for controlled transfer and erasability in correctable types. These film inks are applied via coating processes, often using hot-melt techniques or solvent-based dispersion followed by on a substrate such as or , achieving a thin layer (e.g., 1.25 lbs per 3,000 sq ft dry weight) for carriers to facilitate even flow without saturation. Modern variants incorporate non-toxic components to meet environmental regulations, reducing hazardous substances in pigments and binders. As of 2025, innovations include the development of biodegradable substrates and -free formulations to enhance and reduce environmental impact.

Historical Development

Early Innovations

The development of ink ribbons for typewriters began with experimental inking methods in the mid-19th century, prior to the widespread use of spooled ribbons. Early typewriters from the 1860s and 1870s often relied on pads, rollers, or simple cloth strips to apply to the paper. For instance, some prototypes employed pads that the typebars struck directly, or rollers that distributed across the printing surface, but these methods suffered from inconsistent application and frequent need for re-inking. The Malling-Hansen Writing Ball, introduced in 1870, utilized a basic inking system with a carbonized ribbon to transfer via its hemispherical keys, marking an early attempt at mechanized inking in a commercial device. A pivotal advancement came in 1857 when Dr. Samuel W. Francis developed an inked ribbon for a typewriter design, featuring a silk band that transferred ink under pressure from typebars, though it was not commercially viable at the time. This concept was adopted and refined by , who included an inked ribbon mechanism in his U.S. Patent No. 79,265, granted on June 23, 1868, for an "Improvement in Type-Writing Machines." Sholes's design featured a fabric ribbon wound on spools, fed across the printing area to provide fresh inked sections with each key strike, addressing prior limitations of direct inking. By 1873, began manufacturing the , incorporating this ribbon system, which used fabric spools for reliable ink transfer. In 1878, Remington introduced the Model No. 2 , the first to feature a for uppercase and lowercase letters, along with standardized fabric spool that became a hallmark of the era. These , typically made of or saturated with oil-based , were mounted on reversible spools to extend usability. Early challenges with these innovations included drying out during storage or use, leading to faint or uneven impressions, and inconsistent transfer due to fabric inconsistencies. Inventors addressed drying by incorporating moistening mechanisms, such as humidified storage or ribbon vibrators to redistribute , improving reliability. George C. Blickensderfer's 1893 Model No. 5 portable initially used an ink pad system for compactness, but later iterations and conversions adopted carbon-impregnated for crisper, one-time-use printing, enhancing portability without sacrificing quality. By the 1890s, inked fabric had achieved widespread adoption, standardizing operation and enabling of documents in offices and homes. This era's innovations laid the foundation for reliable , with patents like George K. Anderson's design for contrasting ink color at ribbon ends to signal and need for reversal further refining usability.

Modern Evolutions

In the mid-20th century, the introduction of as a ribbon material marked a significant advancement in durability, replacing earlier and fabrics that wore out quickly under repeated strikes. ribbons provided greater resistance to abrasion and allowed for longer usage cycles, enhancing reliability in high-volume applications. During the , pioneered correctable ribbons with the launch of the Correcting Selectric typewriter in 1973, featuring a specialized formula that sat on the paper's surface rather than penetrating it, enabling errors to be lifted away using . This innovation dramatically improved editing efficiency for professional typists. Concurrently, introduced the Coronamatic Cartridge system in 1973, incorporating an endless loop fabric ribbon in a self-contained unit that simplified installation and reduced mess, as users could swap cartridges without handling the inked material directly. In the , film substrates enabled the development of single-use precision ribbons, which delivered sharper, more consistent impressions through thin, non-reusable plastic bases coated with exact layers, minimizing smudging and supporting high-resolution output in impact printers. The 1980s brought thermal transfer ribbons to prominence, with IBM releasing the first printers utilizing this technology, where heat from the print head melted ink from a polyester film onto the substrate for durable, high-contrast results without direct impact. Entering the 2000s, manufacturers developed eco-friendly low-VOC (volatile organic compound) ink formulations for thermal transfer ribbons, reducing solvent emissions and environmental impact while maintaining print quality, driven by regulatory pressures and sustainability demands in labeling and packaging industries. The widespread adoption of technologies, such as inkjet and laser printers, in the post-1990s era led to a sharp decline in demand for traditional ink ribbons, as these non-impact methods offered quieter operation, lower maintenance, and superior graphics without expendable ribbons. Despite this, ink ribbons have seen a niche revival in the among enthusiasts of vintage typewriters, where hobbyists re-ink or replace ribbons to restore functionality, fostering a renewed appreciation for analog aesthetics and . As of 2025, innovations in recyclable and low-impact ribbon materials continue in industrial applications.

Applications and Uses

In Typewriters

In typewriters, ink ribbons are installed by first removing the machine's top cover or bonnet to access the spools, then unhooking and extracting the old from its guides and carrier. New spools are attached by aligning them with the typewriter's holders, ensuring the feeds correctly—typically with ink positioned above for dual-color variants—and threading it through designated guides along the carrier or vibrator assembly. For dual-color ribbons, the color shift is engaged during installation to position the vibrator mechanism, allowing selective access to or ink sections by raising or lowering the relative to the typebars. Usage involves automatic incremental advancement of the ribbon with each keystroke, driven by the 's mechanism, which typically yields 200,000 to 1,000,000 characters per ribbon depending on typing intensity and ribbon type. For moderate daily use, such as several pages, replacement is recommended every 2 to 6 months to maintain print legibility, with the ribbon winding from one spool to the other until exhausted. includes regular cleaning of the ribbon path and spools using a soft or to remove dust and residue, preventing jams caused by buildup that could bind the advancement mechanism. Typewriter designs incorporate specific adaptations for ribbon handling, such as the ribbon vibrator—a device that lifts and positions the ribbon precisely against the paper for even ink transfer during each key strike. Manual typewriters rely on mechanical linkages for variable-speed ribbon advancement tied to typing rhythm, while electric models use motor-driven systems for consistent, faster progression to match higher output rates of up to several hundred . Ink ribbons remained standard in manual typewriters through their widespread adoption until the , when personal computers began supplanting them; electric variants often employed faster-wearing film ribbons for sharper, single-use transfers in automated operations.

In Impact Printers

In impact printers, ribbons serve as the essential medium for transferring to through mechanical , positioned between the print head and the substrate to enable precise character and . These printers operate by striking the with pins, hammers, or other mechanisms, causing the to adhere to the at points of contact, producing text or via impact. This method contrasts with non-impact technologies like inkjet or , as it relies on physical pressure rather than thermal or electrostatic processes, making ribbons durable and cost-effective for high-volume applications. The most prevalent type of impact printer utilizing ribbons is the printer, where a print head containing 9 or 24 thin metal pins strikes the to create patterns of dots that form characters and images. These , often fabric-based and saturated with quick-drying , can last 12-24 months or span hundreds of meters under heavy use, supporting multi-part forms for carbonless copies in environments like banking and . In printers, a rotating with embossed petals impacts a single-color to produce letter-quality text, with the requiring replacement to switch fonts or colors, though this type has largely been supplanted by digital alternatives. Line printers and band printers also employ ribbons or inked bands for rapid, full-line printing, achieving speeds of over 2,000 lines per minute by having hammers strike the ribbon against continuously fed paper, ideal for bulk in legacy systems. Character printers, an older variant, print one symbol at a time via similar ribbon strikes but are now obsolete. Overall, ribbons in these devices offer low operating costs through infrequent replacements and compatibility with tractor-fed continuous forms, though they limit output to unless multi-color ribbons are used.

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