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Kasturba Mohandas Gandhi[a] (listenⓘ, born Kasturba Gokuldas Kapadia; 11 April 1869 – 22 February 1944) was an Indian political activist who was involved in the Indian independence movement during British India. She was married to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi.[1] National Safe Motherhood Day is observed in India annually on 11 April, coinciding with Kasturba's birthday.[2][3]

Key Information

Early life and background

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Kasturba was born on 11 April 1869 to Gokuladas and Vrajkunwerba Kapadia. The family belonged to the Modh Bania caste of Gujarati Hindu tradesmen and were based in the coastal town of Porbandar.[1] In May 1883, 14-year-old Kasturba was married to 13-year-old Mohandas in a marriage arranged by their parents.[4]

Recalling the day of their marriage, her husband once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives."[citation needed] However, as was the prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend the first few years of marriage at her parents' house, and away from her husband.[5][failed verification] Writing many years later, Mohandas described with regret the lustful feelings he felt for his young bride, "even at school I used to think of her, and the thought of nightfall and our subsequent meeting was ever haunting me."[6] At the beginning of their marriage, Mohandas was also possessive and manipulative; he wanted the ideal wife who would follow his command.[7]

Kasturba became pregnant at the age of 17. The first child was born prematurely and did not survive the first year. Although their other four sons survived to adulthood, Kasturba never fully recovered from the death of her first child.[8] Mohandas decided to go to London to study and departed in 1888, soon after their second child was born, a son named Harilal. Kasturba remained in India. Mohandas returned from London in 1891, and in 1892 Kasturba gave birth to another son, Manilal. Unable to find a successful career in India, Mohandas left for South Africa in 1893, once again leaving behind Kasturba and his children. In 1896 the family joined Mohandas in South Africa.[citation needed]

Kasturba with her four sons

In 1906, Mohandas took a vow of chastity, or brahamacharya.[7] Some reports indicated that Kasturba felt that this opposed her role as a traditional Hindu wife.[7] However, Kasturba quickly defended her marriage when a woman suggested she was unhappy.[9] Kasturba's relatives also insisted that the greatest good was to remain and obey her husband, the Mahatma.[7]

Ramachandra Guha's biography Gandhi Before India described the marriage, saying, "They had, in the emotional as well as sexual sense, always been true to one another. Perhaps because of their periodic, extended separations, Kasturba deeply cherished their time together."[10]

Political career

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Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore with Mahatma Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi at Santiniketan, 1940.

Kasturba first involved herself with politics in South Africa in 1904 when, with her husband and others, she established the Phoenix Settlement near Durban. In 1913 she took part in protests against the ill-treatment of Indian immigrants in South Africa, for which she was arrested and sentenced to hard labour. While in prison, she led other women in prayer[11][12] and encouraged the educated women to teach the uneducated women how to read and write.[12]

The Gandhis left South Africa in July 1914 and returned to live in India. In spite of Kasturba’s chronic bronchitis she continued to take part in civil actions and protests across India and often took her husband's spot when he was in prison. The majority of her time was dedicated to serving in ashrams.[13] Here, Kasturba was referred to as "Ba" or Mother, because she served as mother of the ashrams in India.[14] A point of difference between Kasturba and Mohandas was the treatment of their children in their ashram. Mohandas believed that their sons did not deserve special treatment, while Kasturba felt that Mohandas neglected them.[15]

In 1917, Kasturba worked for women's welfare in Champaran, Bihar where Mohandas was working with indigo farmers. She taught women hygiene, discipline, health, reading and writing.[citation needed] In 1922, she participated in a Satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) movement in Borsad, Gujarat even though she was in poor health. She did not take part in her husband's famous Salt March in 1930, but continued to take part in many civil disobedience campaigns and marches. As a result, she was arrested and jailed on numerous occasions.[13]

In 1939, Kasturba took part in nonviolent protests against the British rule in Rajkot, after the women in the city specifically asked her to advocate for them.[13] Kasturba was arrested once again, and kept in solitary confinement for a month. Her health worsened but she continued to fight for independence. In 1942, she was arrested again, along with Mohandas and other freedom fighters, for participating in the Quit India movement. She was imprisoned in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. By this time her health had severely deteriorated and she died at the detention camp in Pune.[8]

Mohandas wrote of his wife in terms which showed that he expected obedience from her. "According to my earlier experience, she was very obstinate. In spite of all my pressure she would do as she wished. This led to short or long periods of estrangement between us. But as my public life expanded, my wife bloomed forth and deliberately lost herself in my work."[16]

Health and death

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Kasturba with Mohandas in the 1930s
Kasturba and Mohandas in 1902
Kasturba Gandhi memorial stone (on the right) with the memorial stone of Mahadev Desai in Aga Khan Palace, Pune where she died

Kasturba suffered from chronic bronchitis due to complications at birth. Her bronchitis was complicated by pneumonia.[17] In January 1908 she fasted while her husband was in prison, and she became gravely ill. She came so close to death that Mohandas apologised to her, and promised he would not remarry if she died. Kasturba would later undergo a major surgery.[18]

In January 1944, Kasturba suffered two heart attacks, after which she was confined to her bed much of the time. Even there she found no respite from pain. Spells of breathlessness interfered with her sleep at night. She asked to see an Ayurvedic doctor, and after several delays, the government allowed a specialist in traditional Indian medicine to attend to her. At first she responded well, recovering enough by the second week in February to sit on the veranda in a wheelchair for short periods and talk with him. Later she suffered a relapse. Her son Devdas ordered penicillin, but her doctors did not want to use it because the final failure of her kidneys could not be relieved by penicillin. The doctors informed the Gandhi family that the condition of Kasturba had already deteriorated enough that penicillin would not be helpful.[19][20]

She died at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune, at 7:35 PM local time on 22 February 1944, aged 74.[21]

The Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust Fund was set up in her memory. Mohandas requested that this fund be used to help women and children in villages in India.[22]

Kasturba and Mohandas on an Indian Postal Stamp (1969)

Legacy

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Many institutions, roads, and cities are named after Kasturba Gandhi:

Mohandas Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi at Eternal Gandhi Multimedia Museum, Gandhi Smriti (Birla House), Tees January Marg, New Delhi.
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Narayan Desai wrote a play, Kasturba, based on Kasturba Gandhi. It was directed by Aditi Desai and was staged several times.[23]

In the 1982 film Gandhi, the role of Kasturba Gandhi was played by Rohini Hattangadi.

See also

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Kasturba Gandhi Postal Stamp (1964)

Footnotes

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Kasturba Gandhi

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Kasturba Gandhi (11 April 1869 – 22 February 1944) was an Indian independence activist and the wife of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, with whom she shared a partnership in civil disobedience campaigns against British colonial rule and social reform efforts including promotion of khadi spinning and women's empowerment. Born Kasturbai Makhanji Kapadia into a Modh Bania merchant family in Porbandar, Gujarat, she entered an arranged child marriage with Gandhi in 1882 at age 13, bearing four sons—Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas, and Devdas—after an initial child died in infancy. Accompanying Gandhi to South Africa in 1897, Kasturba engaged in early satyagraha actions supporting Indian immigrants' rights, including a 1913 protest march that led to her three-month imprisonment for violating immigration laws. Upon returning to India in 1915, she immersed herself in the independence movement, mobilizing women for the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921, the Salt Satyagraha of 1930, and other civil disobedience efforts, resulting in multiple arrests and detentions, such as six months' rigorous imprisonment in 1932 and detention without trial in Rajkot in 1939. Her final internment occurred during the 1942 Quit India Movement at Aga Khan Palace in Pune, where chronic bronchitis exacerbated by heart strain led to her death in Gandhi's presence. Kasturba's contributions extended beyond political activism to ashram life, where she enforced discipline, educated female inmates, and exemplified Gandhian principles of non-violence and self-reliance, though she initially resisted some of Gandhi's ascetic vows before embracing them. Her steadfast support amid personal hardships, including family estrangements with sons like Harilal, underscored her role as a resilient partner in the satyagraha ethos, influencing women's increased involvement in public spheres during the freedom struggle.

Early Life

Birth and Family Background

Kasturba Gandhi, born Kasturbai Makhanji Kapadia, entered the world on April 11, 1869, in Porbandar, a coastal town in the Kathiawar region of present-day Gujarat, India. Her birth occurred several months before that of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on October 2, 1869, in the same locality. She was the daughter of Gokuldas Makanji Kapadia, a prosperous merchant engaged in trade, and his wife Vrajkunwerba Kapadia. The Kapadia family belonged to the Modh Bania caste, a community of Gujarati Hindu tradesmen known for their involvement in commerce. Gokuldas maintained social ties with Karamchand Gandhi, the diwan (prime minister) of Porbandar and father of Mohandas, which later facilitated the arranged marriage between Kasturba and Mohandas. Kasturba had two brothers, reflecting a typical family structure among the merchant class of the era.

Childhood and Early Marriage

Kasturba Kapadia was born on April 11, 1869, in Porbandar, present-day Gujarat, into a family of Gujarati Hindu merchants belonging to the Modh Bania caste. Her father, Gokuldas Makanji Kapadia, was a wealthy merchant and close friend of Karamchand Gandhi, the local diwan and father of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Her mother was Vrajkunwerba Kapadia, and the family resided in the coastal town known for its trading activities. As was customary for girls in 19th-century orthodox Hindu merchant families, Kasturba's childhood emphasized domestic training over formal schooling; she received no systematic education and remained illiterate in her early years, learning household management, religious rituals, and Vaishnavite devotion instead. Betrothal practices were common in such communities, and Kasturba was pledged to Mohandas Gandhi around age seven, reflecting parental arrangements to strengthen social ties within the Bania caste. The marriage occurred in 1882, when Kasturba was thirteen and Mohandas also thirteen, in a traditional arranged ceremony conducted according to Hindu rites in Porbandar. This child marriage aligned with prevailing norms in British India, where unions at puberty or earlier secured family alliances and economic stability among trading classes, though it later drew Gandhi's own retrospective criticism in his autobiography for curtailing youthful independence. Following the wedding, Kasturba joined the Gandhi household, navigating early spousal roles amid the expectations of joint family life.

Time in South Africa

Accompaniment of Gandhi and Initial Adjustments

Kasturba Gandhi accompanied her husband Mohandas Gandhi to South Africa in December 1897, joining him four years after his initial arrival in April 1893 for a legal contract that extended into advocacy for Indian rights. She traveled aboard the SS Courland from Bombay to Durban with their sons Harilal, Manilal, and others, amid quarantine delays due to plague fears in India and local white opposition to Indian immigration. Upon docking, Gandhi faced a mob assault while disembarking, but Kasturba and the children found shelter at the home of merchant Rustomji, highlighting the immediate racial hostilities they encountered. The family initially settled at Beach Grove Villa in Durban, where Kasturba managed the household largely alone due to Gandhi's frequent travels for legal and activist work between Durban, Natal, and Transvaal. As the only woman in the home, she experienced isolation, adapting to a foreign environment marked by cultural dislocation and the demands of Gandhi's evolving personal and ethical experiments. Reluctantly, she adjusted to new clothing styles influenced by Parsi and Western habits, as well as changes in dining practices, while overseeing the upbringing of their young sons. A significant early challenge arose in 1898 when Gandhi, committed to eradicating untouchability, insisted Kasturba clean the chamber pot of an Untouchable guest, Goopal, defying traditional Hindu caste norms she upheld. She resisted vehemently, retorting, “Keep your house to yourself and let me go,” and wept in distress, revealing tensions between her ingrained customs and Gandhi's reformist ideals. Over time, however, she gradually accommodated these changes, supporting household simplicity and later communal living, though family education disputes persisted, with Gandhi favoring home instruction over formal schooling preferred by Kasturba. These adjustments laid the foundation for her deeper involvement in Gandhi's public struggles, transforming her role from domestic supporter to active participant.

Participation in Early Satyagraha Campaigns

Kasturba Gandhi's active participation in the Satyagraha campaigns occurred primarily during the 1913 revival, which protested the Cape Supreme Court's ruling invalidating non-Christian marriages—rendering wives legally single and children illegitimate—and the £3 poll tax on former indentured Indian laborers. This campaign built on earlier passive resistance efforts against registration laws starting in 1906, but Kasturba's direct involvement emphasized women's roles in nonviolent defiance, crossing into the Transvaal without required entry permits to overload prisons and highlight injustices. On 15 September 1913, she joined the first batch of satyagrahis, including three other women from the Gandhi family and twelve men, departing from Phoenix Settlement in Natal to voluntarily court arrest at the border. Arrested immediately upon crossing without permits, Kasturba was sentenced on 23 September 1913 to three months of hard labor in Maritzburg prison, where she endured harsh conditions including menial tasks like grinding corn and cleaning, despite her frail health. Later that month, before or amid her imprisonment, she led a group of twelve women to Newcastle in Natal to rally Indian mine workers for a strike, further escalating the movement by encouraging mass defiance of labor contracts. On 21 October 1913, she faced a second arrest in Newcastle under the Vagrancy Act for these mobilization efforts, receiving another three-month hard labor sentence, though the campaign's momentum led to her release on 22 December 1913 alongside other prisoners following negotiations. Her willingness to endure imprisonment, described by contemporaries as reducing her to a "mere skeleton," galvanized female participation and drew international sympathy, contributing to the pressure that culminated in the Indian Relief Act of 1914, which addressed key grievances. Kasturba's actions exemplified personal sacrifice in Satyagraha, as she volunteered despite Gandhi's concerns for her well-being, stating she preferred prison over separation under discriminatory laws.

Activism in India

Entry into Indian Independence Movements

Upon Mohandas Gandhi's return to India on 9 January 1915 after two decades in South Africa, Kasturba Gandhi accompanied him and began participating in his early constructive and reform activities, marking her initial foray into organized efforts aligned with Indian nationalist goals. She became the first inmate of the Kocharab ashram in Ahmedabad, established by Gandhi in May 1915 as a communal living experiment emphasizing self-reliance, simplicity, and social service, which served as a precursor to the Sabarmati Ashram founded in 1917. In this setting, Kasturba focused on practical tasks such as managing household duties, teaching spinning (khadi promotion), and imparting basic hygiene and education to women and children, adapting her domestic skills to communal and reformist purposes amid Gandhi's growing involvement in Indian politics. Kasturba's substantive entry into the independence movements occurred during the Champaran Satyagraha of 1917, Gandhi's first major civil disobedience campaign in India against indigo planters' exploitative tinkathia system in Bihar. Joining Gandhi in Champaran in late 1917, she concentrated on women's welfare, conducting classes on sanitation, personal cleanliness, and elementary health practices for rural women, while also encouraging charkha (spinning wheel) use to foster economic self-sufficiency. Her efforts complemented Gandhi's negotiations with British authorities, which culminated in the Champaran Agrarian Act of 1918, and represented a shift from her prior supportive role in South Africa to direct engagement with Indian peasant communities, though primarily through non-confrontational social upliftment rather than leading protests. These early activities laid the groundwork for Kasturba's broader activism, as she gradually addressed public meetings and mobilized women for nationalist causes, despite initial cultural reticence toward female public participation in conservative Indian society. By 1919, amid the Rowlatt Satyagraha against repressive British laws, she assisted in organizing relief for affected families and promoting swadeshi (indigenous goods), signaling her alignment with Gandhi's philosophy of satyagraha as non-violent resistance. Her involvement remained intertwined with Gandhi's leadership, emphasizing moral and ethical reform over political agitation, and reflected a pragmatic adaptation to India's agrarian and social realities rather than revolutionary fervor.

Key Imprisonments and Mobilization Efforts

Kasturba Gandhi actively mobilized women in support of the Indian independence movement, organizing them for civil disobedience activities such as picketing liquor and foreign cloth shops, promoting khadi spinning, and conducting classes on hygiene, health, discipline, reading, and writing to empower participants in satyagraha campaigns. Her efforts focused on rural and urban women, encouraging their participation in nonviolent resistance against British rule, including leading processions and addressing public meetings to build grassroots support for boycotts and self-reliance. During the Civil Disobedience Movement launched in 1930, Gandhi courted arrest multiple times for violating salt laws and related prohibitions, contributing to the widespread defiance in Gujarat; she was imprisoned on several occasions between 1930 and 1934 as part of this phase, including a sentence in early 1932 to six weeks of simple imprisonment for her role in satyagraha activities. In January 1932, she received a conviction for six weeks' imprisonment, followed by another arrest on March 15, 1932, amid ongoing protests against British economic policies. By 1933, she was arrested at Sabarmati Ashram and sentenced to five months in solitary confinement for continued civil disobedience, enduring harsh conditions that tested her resolve despite deteriorating health. In 1939, Gandhi led the Rajkot Satyagraha against local princely rule, mobilizing satyagrahis and facing solitary confinement as punishment for organizing protests demanding democratic reforms. Her final imprisonment occurred on August 9, 1942, during the Quit India Movement, when she was detained with Mohandas Gandhi and other leaders at Aga Khan Palace in Pune; this internment lasted until her death on February 22, 1944, amid the British crackdown on mass mobilization for immediate independence. These incarcerations, totaling over a dozen in India, underscored her commitment to nonviolent resistance, as she persisted in prayer, spinning, and quiet defiance even under isolation.

Personal Relationships and Family

Marriage Dynamics with Mohandas Gandhi

Kasturba Makhanji Kapadia and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi were married in an arranged ceremony in May 1883, when both were approximately 13 years old, following traditional Gujarati customs. Gandhi later reflected in his autobiography that the early phase of their union resembled play, but it quickly evolved into intense possessiveness on his part. He admitted to feeling overwhelming jealousy whenever Kasturba interacted with relatives or friends, often restricting her movements and prohibiting visits to her parental home without his consent. This possessiveness manifested in physical confrontations; Gandhi described instances where he forcibly prevented her from attending family events, such as a wedding, by grabbing her by the arm or waist, actions he later viewed with regret as domineering and lust-driven. Despite these tensions, Kasturba demonstrated resilience, occasionally resisting his authority, though she remained illiterate initially and relied on him for basic education, which he undertook amid their household duties. Their relationship produced four surviving sons—Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas, and Devdas—after the death of an infant, with Kasturba managing domestic responsibilities while Gandhi pursued legal and activist endeavors. In 1906, during their time in South Africa, Gandhi vowed brahmacharya, or celibacy, as a commitment to self-discipline and non-violence, effectively ending conjugal relations in their marriage and reorienting it toward spiritual companionship. He justified this as channeling sexual energy away from personal desires toward public service, though it imposed emotional strains on Kasturba, who had already adapted to his evolving ascetic ideals. Gandhi acknowledged in his writings the challenges this posed, praising her eventual acceptance as an act of courage, yet their dynamic remained marked by his leadership and her supportive, often subordinate role amid his philosophical experiments. Over 61 years together, this evolution from youthful passion to disciplined partnership underscored Gandhi's personal transformation, though not without admissions of early faults like jealousy and control.

Role as Mother and Family Conflicts

Kasturba Gandhi bore four sons: Harilal in 1888, Manilal in 1892, Ramdas in 1897, and Devdas in 1900. She managed their upbringing amid Mohandas Gandhi's frequent absences, such as his 1893 departure to South Africa, leaving her to care for the young family in India. In South Africa, Kasturba handled household duties while adhering to Gandhi's evolving principles of simplicity and self-reliance, including manual labor and reduced expenses, which she initially resisted but ultimately supported for the family's cohesion. As a mother, Kasturba provided emotional warmth and affection to her sons, contrasting Gandhi's emphasis on equal treatment for all ashram residents, including no privileges for his own children. She often acted as an intermediary, softening Gandhi's strict discipline; for instance, she supported Manilal during a demanding 10-mile walk imposed as part of Gandhi's educational ideals. Her devotion persisted through the sons' adulthood, as seen in her concern for their welfare during imprisonments and travels, and she tasked Devdas with family responsibilities in her final days in 1944. Family conflicts arose primarily over the sons' education and adherence to Gandhi's austere lifestyle. Gandhi rejected formal Western schooling, opting for homeschooling in South Africa, a decision Kasturba initially opposed before accepting. Tensions peaked with Harilal, who sought to study law in London around 1913; Gandhi denied permission due to financial and principled objections, prompting Harilal's departure from the family and eventual estrangement marked by alcoholism and public rebellion against his father. Kasturba experienced profound distress from Harilal's conflicts, pleading with him during a 1936 encounter at Katni station and writing letters expressing sorrow over his alcoholism and 1936 conversion to Islam under the name Abdullah. In her final illness at Aga Khan Palace in February 1944, she repeatedly asked for Harilal, who visited in a drunken state, deepening her emotional pain shortly before her death on February 22. These familial rifts highlighted Kasturba's role as a mediator torn between loyalty to her husband and maternal instincts toward her wayward eldest son.

Health and Final Years

Chronic Illnesses and Lifestyle Impacts

Kasturba Gandhi suffered from chronic bronchitis throughout her adult life, a condition frequently complicated by pneumonia and asthma that progressively weakened her heart. These respiratory ailments dated back to at least the early 1900s in South Africa, where she experienced severe episodes exacerbated by physical strain and limited medical access. By her later years, the bronchitis had led to cardiac complications, including multiple heart attacks documented in January 1944 during detention. Her adoption of Mohandas Gandhi's ascetic lifestyle, emphasizing vegetarianism, periodic fasting, and minimalistic living, contributed to the physical toll on her health, particularly as she aged. Participation in satyagraha campaigns and repeated imprisonments exposed her to harsh conditions, including inadequate shelter and nutrition, which aggravated her bronchitis and led to recurrent infections. For instance, during the 1908 fast she undertook in solidarity with her imprisoned husband, her bronchitis intensified into grave illness requiring prolonged recovery. The stress of activism, such as arrests tied to the Quit India Movement in 1942, further deteriorated her condition by increasing physiological strain on her compromised respiratory and cardiovascular systems. Gandhi's preference for natural remedies and household treatments over conventional medicine during her earlier illnesses aligned with his philosophy of self-reliance and positive mental discipline, which he credited for her recoveries in at least three serious episodes. However, this approach, combined with the demands of communal living in ashrams and detention camps, limited interventions that might have mitigated chronic progression, as her health steadily declined despite these efforts. By 1943–1944 in Aga Khan Palace, bedridden after heart attacks, the cumulative effects of lifelong austerity and activism rendered her increasingly frail.

Death in Detention and Medical Controversies

Kasturba Gandhi was arrested on August 9, 1942, alongside Mohandas Gandhi and other associates during the Quit India Movement and detained at Aga Khan Palace in Pune until her death. Her pre-existing conditions, including chronic bronchitis complicated by asthma, a weakened heart, and paroxysmal tachycardia, worsened in captivity due to limited medical resources and the stresses of imprisonment. By January 1944, she had suffered multiple heart attacks, confining her to bed and rendering her increasingly frail. In her final weeks, Kasturba developed terminal bronchopneumonia accompanied by kidney failure. Penicillin, a novel antibiotic then in limited wartime supply, had arrived at the palace on February 22, 1944, but the attending British military doctors, Colonels Shah and Bhandari, explicitly judged it useless, as pneumonia was only a contributory factor and her kidney failure was irreversible. Devdas Gandhi briefly advocated for its administration as a "wonder drug," but after consulting the doctors, concurred with their assessment and withdrew the request; the doctors expressed relief. Gandhi advised against prolonging her suffering but stated he would not obstruct if Devdas insisted. All parties, including Kasturba who prioritized prayer (Ramnam) over further intervention, agreed to cease treatment and allow her to rest. She died at 7:35 a.m. on February 22, 1944, in Gandhi's lap amid signs of uremia and delirium, with her passing attributed to heart failure exacerbated by pneumonia. Gandhi remained by her cremation pyre until late afternoon, later describing the moment of her death as a profound spiritual union rather than tragedy. This echoed Kasturba's own expressed wish: "There must be no weeping and mourning. My death should be an occasion for rejoicing." The episode has fueled debates over medical intervention versus acceptance of natural decline, with detractors noting Gandhi's later acceptance of quinine for his own malaria infection and questioning if penicillin might have mitigated the pneumonia component despite the dominant kidney failure. Proponents emphasize the doctors' judgment that antibiotics could not address her multifaceted organ failures, advanced age (74), and post-heart-attack debility, aligning with Gandhi's advocacy for spiritual resilience and self-reliance over experimental treatments in 1944 India. These accounts, drawn from eyewitness reminiscences and Gandhi's circle, highlight tensions between empirical options and ideological commitments, though definitive causation remains unprovable absent contemporaneous medical data.

Legacy and Evaluations

Recognized Contributions to Nationalism

Kasturba Gandhi's contributions to Indian nationalism centered on her direct participation in satyagraha campaigns, mobilization of women for nonviolent resistance, and repeated imprisonments for defying British authority. Returning to India in 1915 after developing satyagraha tactics in South Africa, she supported early nationalist efforts by promoting self-reliance through khadi spinning and hygiene education in ashrams, which aligned with swadeshi ideals to undermine British economic control. Her activities emphasized empowering rural women to join the independence struggle, fostering grassroots participation in boycotts of foreign goods and liquor shops. In 1922, despite chronic health problems including bronchitis, she spearheaded a satyagraha in Borsad, Gujarat, protesting punitive British taxes on villagers, which involved courting arrest to highlight agrarian grievances and noncooperation with colonial levies. This action exemplified her commitment to localized resistance, drawing women into public defiance and amplifying the Non-Cooperation Movement's reach beyond urban elites. During the 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement, she organized women's groups for salt production and picketing, leading to her arrests for violating salt laws and dispersal orders; she served terms including one year in 1933, enduring harsh prison conditions to sustain momentum against British monopolies. By the 1942 Quit India Movement, her role intensified; on August 9, while Mahatma Gandhi was detained, she addressed crowds in Mumbai, declaring that Indian women must demonstrate their resolve as "daughters of Bharat Mata" by sustaining the fight against British rule, urging mass noncooperation and self-governance. Arrested shortly after for these protests, she was held in Aga Khan Palace until her death, symbolizing unyielding opposition to colonial detention policies. These efforts, documented in contemporary accounts, underscored her as a bridge between familial support for Gandhi's philosophy and independent leadership in galvanizing female participation, which broadened the movement's base amid male leaders' incarcerations. Her imprisonments—totaling over three years across campaigns—served as public testimony to satyagraha's moral force, pressuring British authorities while inspiring emulation in women's nationalist roles.

Criticisms of Subordination and Personal Sacrifices

Criticisms of Kasturba Gandhi's role in her marriage often center on her subordination to Mohandas Gandhi's evolving personal and philosophical experiments, which imposed substantial sacrifices on her traditional Hindu upbringing and autonomy. Anthropologist Emma Tarlo argues that Gandhi systematically sought to mold Kasturba into an "ideal wife" aligned with his ascetic ideals, frequently overriding her resistance through persuasion or implied coercion, as evidenced in his own accounts of domestic conflicts. For instance, in the early 1900s, Gandhi demanded she relinquish her jewelry and adopt poverty as part of his vows, leading to her tearful protests; he described physically intervening by smashing her bangles in one episode to enforce compliance. These dynamics extended to broader lifestyle reforms, where Kasturba accused Gandhi of endangering her health through stringent dietary changes, reportedly telling him they were an attempt "to kill her." Gandhi's 1906 vow of brahmacharya (celibacy) further strained their relationship, requiring her to forgo conjugal intimacy indefinitely, a sacrifice she initially resisted but accepted amid familial pressures. Critics, including feminist interpreters cited by Tarlo, view such impositions as reinforcing patriarchal control, positioning Kasturba in a perpetual predicament of choosing between marital duty and personal dignity. Subordination critiques also highlight her involvement in Gandhi's anti-untouchability experiments, which clashed with her caste-based purity norms. In the 1920s at the Sabarmati Ashram, she reluctantly emptied a chamber pot used by lower-caste residents and opposed admitting Harijans, only relenting under Gandhi's insistence and family expectations, actions Tarlo describes as transgressions that tested her Hindu identity. Despite these sacrifices—encompassing poverty, repeated imprisonments alongside him, and family separations—some analyses contend they diminished her agency, with Gandhi even suppressing a 1930s letter she wrote defending their marriage against perceptions of unhappiness. Gandhi himself acknowledged learning non-violence from her "determined resistance" to his will, yet critics argue this resistance remained submerged, underscoring an unequal partnership where her compliance enabled his public pursuits at personal cost.

Modern Reassessments and Cultural Depictions

In contemporary historiography, Kasturba Gandhi's role has undergone reevaluation, with scholars highlighting her formative influence on Mohandas Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence and her status as an autonomous activist rather than merely a supportive spouse. Gandhi himself acknowledged learning the principle of ahimsa from her example during early family disputes, a point emphasized by Delhi University Vice Chancellor Dinesh Singh in 2015, who criticized historians for systematically overlooking this dynamic despite its centrality to Gandhi's self-account. Academic analyses further portray her as embodying satyagraha through personal trials, including multiple imprisonments, thereby contributing causally to the Gandhian movement's ethical framework beyond domestic reinforcement. Kasturba Gandhi features prominently in cultural representations, including Indian postage stamps issued by India Post to commemorate her legacy. A 15-paise stamp depicting her portrait was released on 22 February 1964, marking the 20th anniversary of her death, followed by a 20-paise stamp on 2 October 1969 showing her alongside Mohandas Gandhi as part of his birth centenary series. Another stamp honoring the 50th anniversary of the Kasturba Gandhi National Memorial Trust appeared on 22 February 1996, recognizing her foundational support for women's education and welfare initiatives. In film, she is portrayed in Richard Attenborough's 1982 epic Gandhi, where actress Rohini Hattangadi embodied her resilience during satyagraha campaigns and imprisonment. More focused biopics include the 2023 documentary Kasturba Gandhi: Accidental Activist, directed by Cynthia Lukas, which frames her evolution from reluctant participant to pioneering female activist across India and South Africa. The Kannada film Thayi Kasthur Gandhi (year unspecified in sources) dramatizes her personal sacrifices amid Gandhi's ideological pursuits. Recent literature, such as Tushar Gandhi's 2022 The Lost Diary of Kastur, My Ba, reconstructs her perspective through imagined entries, underscoring her agency and emotional toll, while A.K. Gandhi's 2023 biography Kasturba Gandhi: A Complete Biography details her activism with archival evidence. These works collectively elevate her from peripheral figure to co-architect of Gandhian principles, though some romanticize her subordination without empirical scrutiny of interpersonal power imbalances.

References

  1. https://inc.in/congress-sandesh/tribute/kasturba-gandhi-11th-april-1869-22nd-february-1944
  2. https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/kasturba-gandhi.php
  3. https://www.gandhiashramsabarmati.org/en/the-mahatma/gandhi-and-kasturba.html
  4. https://www.gandhi-manibhavan.org/kasturba/lifesketch.html
  5. https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/kasturbaandsatyagraha.php
  6. https://www.gandhi-manibhavan.org/kasturba/ba-&-bapu.html
  7. https://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/kasturba-gandhi.pdf
  8. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kasturba-Gandhi
  9. https://sahistory.org.za/people/kasturba-gandhi
  10. https://www.gandhiashramsabarmati.org/en/the-mahatma/life-chronology.html
  11. https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/champaran-satyagraha.php
  12. https://www.historyjournal.net/article/313/6-2-36-891.pdf
  13. https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/women-and-nonviolent-struggle-for-independence-in-India.php
  14. https://campuschronicle.in/the-gandhi-who-made-a-mahatma-pivotal-contribution-of-kasturba-gandhi-in-the-indian-independence-movement/
  15. https://herhalfofhistory.com/2025/04/24/14-15-kasturba-gandhi-wife-of-mahatma-gandhi/
  16. https://www.mkgandhi.org/students/gandhi_f.php
  17. https://www.mkgandhi.org/intro_autobio.php
  18. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/comment/kasturba-the-force-behind-the-mahatma-45293/
  19. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-notes/27453953
  20. https://philosophy.institute/gandhian-philosophy/gandhi-celibacy-self-discipline/
  21. https://www.livemint.com/news/india/the-gandhi-you-know-and-the-one-you-don-t-11569940339387.html
  22. https://www.mkgandhi.org/autobio/chap105.php
  23. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/kasturba-gandhi-in-love-with-the-mahatma-48021/
  24. https://theprint.in/pageturner/excerpt/the-maulvi-gandhi-kasturbas-letter-to-india-about-her-alcoholic-son/977896/
  25. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/kasturba-gandhis-79th-death-anniversary-her-role-in-indias-freedom-movement-and-impact-on-mahatma/articleshow/98143992.cms
  26. https://www.indianetzone.com/kasturba_gandhi
  27. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6515724/
  28. https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Mahatma-Gandhi-not-let-the-doctors-give-his-severely-ill-wife-Kasturba-a-shot-of-penicillin-who-eventually-died-in-1944-after-suffering-for-months
  29. https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/kasturba-and-bapu.php
  30. https://www.windowtonews.com/news.php?id=423192
  31. https://thekarmaatimees.in/kasturba-gandhi/
  32. https://theprint.in/theprint-profile/kasturba-gandhi-the-feisty-woman-whose-patience-inspired-gandhis-call-for-satyagraha/218949/
  33. https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~sj6/Tarlo%20Married%20to%20the%20mahatma%20The%20predicament%20of%20Kasturba%20Gandhi%201997.pdf
  34. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/historians-overlooked-kasturbas-influence-on-gandhi-du-vice-chancellor-1232327
  35. https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/historians-overlooked-kasturba-s-influence-on-gandhi-du-vc-115101401370_1.html
  36. https://www.indphila.com/product/india-1964-20th-death-anniversary-of-kasturba-gandhi-fdc/
  37. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kasturba_and_Mahatma_Gandhi_1969_stamp_of_India.jpg
  38. https://www.indianphilatelics.com/stamps/commemorative-stamps/1996-1997/item/11169-50th-anniversary-of-kasturba-gandhi-trust-tribute-to-ba-click-for-stamp-information.html
  39. https://www.highonfilms.com/films-based-on-mahatma-gandhi/
  40. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt27862234/
  41. https://www.primevideo.com/detail/Thayi-Kasthur-Gandhi/0NKEO4FAL6YOIK3LLYW167JN6O
  42. https://harpercollins.co.in/blog/announcements/the-lost-diary-of-kastur-my-ba/
  43. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/153752967-kasturba-gandhi
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