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Kaykaus I
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Kaykaus I or Izz ud-Din Kaykaus ibn Kaykhusraw (Old Anatolian Turkish: كَیکاوس, Persian: عز الدين كيكاوس پور كيخسرو ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kaykāwūs pour Kaykhusraw) was the Sultan of Rum from 1211 until his death in 1220. He was the eldest son of Kaykhusraw I.

Key Information

Succession

[edit]

Upon the death of Kaykhusraw I at the Battle of Alaşehir in 1211,[1] Kaykaus’ two younger brothers, Kayferidun Ibrahim and the future Kayqubad I, challenged his succession. Kayqubad initially garnered some support among the neighbors of the sultanate, Leo I, the king of Cilician Armenia, and Tughrilshah, his uncle and the independent ruler of Erzurum. At the same time, Kayferidun imperiled the recently acquired port of Antalya by seeking aid from the Cypriot Franks. Most of the emirs, as the powerful landed aristocracy of the sultanate, supported Kaykaus. From his base in Malatya, Kaykaus seized Kayseri and then Konya, inducing Leo to change sides. Kayqubad was forced to flee to the fortress at Ankara, where he sought aid from the Turkman tribes of Kastamonu. Kaykaus soon apprehended both of his brothers and secured the throne for himself.[2]

During this time of considerable danger, Kaykaus negotiated a peace settlement with Theodore Laskaris, the Byzantine Emperor of Nicaea. This treaty marked the end of hostilities between the Seljuq state and the Empire of Nicaea, though Turkmen nomads continued occasionally to trouble the border.[3]

With Antalya secure and the western marches at peace, Kaykaus turned his attentions to the east. First, Cilicia captured Ereğli and Ulukışla, which were captured by the Armenian Kingdom.[citation needed] Then, in the Cilicia Campaign, the Armenians was firmly subjugated.[citation needed] In 1218, Kaykaus allied with Al-Afdal, one of Saladin's sons, who sought to regain his power and offered Kaykaus Aleppo in return.

Conquest of Sinop

[edit]
Main article: Siege of Sinope

Kaykaus’ most significant contribution to the Seljuq state was the acquisition of the Black Sea port of Sinop. In 1214 Turkmen tribesmen captured Alexios, Grand Komnenos of the Empire of Trebizond, on a hunting trip outside of the city. The hostage was turned over to the sultan and negotiated his freedom in exchange for Sinop and the vassalage of Trapezuntine territory to the east. The Seljuqs gained an outlet on the Black Sea to match their Mediterranean port at Antalya, and a wedge was driven between the Empire of Trebizond and the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea. The transfer was affected on Sunday 1 November with both the sultan and the Grand Komnenos present. Alexios was entertained for several days and then politely asked to return to Trebizond.[4]

After the transfer, European and Byzantine trade continued in the city. Kaykaus named an Armenian, Rais Hetoum, to govern the mixed Greek and Turkish population.[5] Churches in the city of Sinop were converted to mosques, on Kaykaus's command.[6] Between April and September 1215 the walls were reconstructed under the supervision of the Greek architect, Sebastos. Fifteen Seljuq emirs contributed to the cost. The work is commemorated by a bilingual Greek and Arabic inscription on a tower near the western gate.[4]

In 1216, Kaykaus attacked Aleppo in support of his vassal Al-Afdal, an exiled Ayyubid.[7] He was defeated by Al-Ashraf.[7] Kaykaus was working to create an alliance with Badr al-Din Lu'lu', Emir of Mosul, against the Ayyubids, but he died in 1220 and the alliance collapsed.[7]

Identity

[edit]

According to Rustam Shukurov, it is very probably that Kaykaus I and his brother Kayqubad I, who both spent considerable time in Constantinople with their father, had the same dual confessional (Christian and Muslim) and dual ethnic (Turkic/Persian and Greek) identity as Kaykhusraw I, Kaykaus II, and Masud II.[a][8]

Monuments

[edit]
The main entrance of the Alaeddin Mosque in Konya was created by Kaykaus I

In 1212 Kaykaus built a madrasa in Ankara[6] and in 1217 the Şifaiye Medresesi in Sivas. The latter was designed as a hospital and medical school. The sultan’s mausoleum is in the south eyvan of the building under a conical dome. The façade includes a poem by the sultan in blue faience tiles.[1]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
  • Bryer, Anthony; Winfield, David (1985). The Byzantine Monuments and Topography of the Pontos. Vol. 1. Dumbarton Oaks.
  • Cahen, Claude (1968). Pre-Ottoman Turkey: A general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history c. 1071-1330. New York: Taplinger. pp. 120–121. hdl:2027/heb.00871. ISBN 1-59740-456-X.
  • Cahen, Claude (1997). "Kayka'us I". In Van Donzel, E.; Lewis, B.; Pellat, CH. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam. E.J. Brill.
  • Crane, H. (1993). "Notes on Saldjūq Architectural Patronage in Thirteenth Century Anatolia". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 36 (1): 1–57. doi:10.1163/156852093X00010.
  • Peacock, A.C.S.; Yildiz, Sara Nur, eds. (2013). The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0857733467.
  • Redford, Scott (1991). "The Alaeddin Mosque in Konya Reconsidered". Artibus Asiae. 51 (1/2). Zürich: Artibus Asiae Publishers: 54–74 [70]. doi:10.2307/3249676. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3249676.
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Kaykaus I

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Izz al-Dīn Kaykāwūs I (died 1220) was sultan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rūm, reigning from 1211 to 1220 as the eldest son and successor of Kaykhusraw I. Ascending amid fraternal rivalries, he consolidated power through military reconquests, including the retaking of Antalya from rebels, as evidenced by contemporary inscriptions on the city's walls. His diplomacy extended to paying tribute to the Nizari Ismailis (Assassins) for protection and leveraging their networks in regional politics, reflecting pragmatic alliances amid Sunni-Shiʿi tensions. Kaykāwūs's rule bridged the expansions of his father to the zenith under his brother Kayqubad I, fostering territorial stability and monumental works such as bilingual inscriptions commemorating Seljuk authority.

Background and Ascension

Family Origins and Early Life

ʿIzz al-Dīn Kaykāwūs, known in Western sources as Kaykaus I, was the eldest son of Sulṭān Ghiyāth al-Dīn (r. 1192–1197, 1205–1211), who ruled the Seljuq Sultanate of Rūm in . The dynasty originated from Oghuz Turkish tribes that migrated westward following the in 1071, establishing a Persianate Islamic sultanate blending nomadic heritage with Byzantine and Armenian influences through intermarriages and territorial control. Kaykhusraw I himself was the youngest son of (r. 1156–1192), whose mother was of Byzantine Christian ancestry, a pattern reflecting strategic alliances with local powers to legitimize rule over diverse populations. Kaykaus's own mother remains unidentified in surviving chronicles, though Seljuq rulers frequently took wives or concubines from Greek or Armenian elites. His birth date is unrecorded but likely occurred in the late , during the turbulent early phase of his father's reign marked by fratricidal conflicts. initially succeeded in 1192 but was ousted by uncles Rukn al-Dīn Suʿlmān and Quṭb al-Dīn Malik-Shāh, forcing the family into exile in Byzantine territories around 1197–1205, including time in . Historical accounts suggest Kaykaus accompanied or resided there during this period, exposed to Byzantine court culture amid his father's diplomatic overtures, such as temporary alliances with Emperor . Upon 's return to power in 1205, backed by and Danishmend emirs, Kaykaus received administrative grooming as governor of , a outpost, preparing him for leadership in a sultanate prone to internal divisions and external threats from Ayyubids and . Kaykaus had at least two full or half-brothers: ʿAlāʾ al-Dīn Kayqubādh, who later ruled as from to 1237, and Jalāl al-Dīn Kayfarīdūn (or Kay Farīdūn Ibrāhīm), assigned lesser s like Koyulhisar or . These sibling relations, drawn from chronicles like those of Abū l-Fidāʾ, highlight the system of Seljuq succession, where territories were divided to manage rival claims, often leading to contention upon a ruler's death. Primary Persian sources, such as Ibn Bībī's al-Awāmīr al-ʿAlāʾiyya, provide the core narrative of these dynamics but offer scant personal details on Kaykaus's youth, focusing instead on political maneuvers.

Death of Kaykhusraw I and Initial Succession Challenges

Kaykhusraw I met his death on June 17, 1211, during the Battle of Antioch on the Meander (also known as the Battle of Alaşehir), where Seljuk forces under his command clashed with the Byzantine army led by Emperor of . Seeking to exploit Seljuk disarray following an earlier defeat, Laskaris engaged Kaykhusraw in , ultimately slaying the sultan after initially being unhorsed himself. The battle resulted in a decisive Nicaean victory and heavy Seljuk losses, exacerbating the instability in the . The sultan's abrupt demise in battle, without a clear designation of heir among his three sons, triggered immediate succession disputes characteristic of Seljuk dynastic politics. 'Izz al-Din Kaykaus, the eldest son born around 1191, positioned himself as the primary claimant but encountered resistance from his younger brothers, Kay Fariḍūn Ibrāhīm and the future . Historical accounts, including those preserved in Ibn Bibi's chronicle, indicate no prior succession plan from Kaykhusraw, leaving the throne vulnerable to factional rivalries among emirs and military leaders. Kayqubad initially secured backing from key Anatolian emirs, leveraging alliances in central territories like , while Kaykaus drew support from eastern border regions such as . To consolidate power, Kaykaus mobilized forces, defeated opposing factions, and besieged strongholds held by rivals, ultimately capturing and imprisoning Kayqubad to neutralize his claim. By late 1211, Kaykaus entered as , though the internal strife delayed stabilization and diverted resources from external threats.

Reign and Military Campaigns

Consolidation Against Internal Rivals

Following the death of in the Battle of Antioch on the Meander in July 1211, his eldest son, Kaykaus I, proclaimed himself sultan in on 20 July 1211, securing initial support from local emirs opposed to his younger brothers' claims. His primary rivals were his brother Kayqubad, who garnered alliances with the Artuqid ruler Muʿizz al-Dīn Tughrulshah and Leo I of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, and another brother, Kayferidun Ibrahim, leading to a lasting until spring 1213. Kayqubad's forces initially besieged in late 1211 but withdrew after Kaykaus I persuaded key allies to defect, leveraging promises of territorial concessions and diplomatic maneuvering. By spring 1212, Kaykaus advanced on , where Kayqubad had fled and fortified himself with aid from Turkmen tribes in ; the siege ended in Ankara's capture, Kayqubad's in a fortress such as Kezirpert or Minsar near , and the sparing of his life on the advice of his tutor. Kaykaus similarly apprehended and confined Ibrahim, neutralizing immediate familial threats through targeted seizures of strongholds like and . To fully consolidate power, Kaykaus suppressed dissenting nobles in central who backed the rival claimants, redistributing lands and titles to loyal emirs in and while inducing figures like Leo I to shift allegiance via concessions in border regions. These efforts, documented in chronicles such as Ibn Bībī's al-Awāmīr al-ʿAlāʾiyya, restored stability by early 1213, enabling subsequent expansions and minimizing losses to peripheral powers like the , who gained minor Cilician castles during the turmoil.

Conquest of Sinop and Expansion into Black Sea Coast

Following the consolidation of his rule in Anatolia, Kaykaus I directed military efforts toward securing a Black Sea outlet, targeting the strategic port of Sinop held by the Empire of Trebizond. In 1214, Seljuk forces under his command initiated a siege against the city, which served as a vital commercial and naval base for Trebizond's Alexios I. The operation involved Turkmen tribal auxiliaries who captured key figures, pressuring the defenders into surrender after prolonged resistance. The fall of Sinop marked the first Seljuk acquisition of a Black Sea harbor, shifting control from Byzantine-Trebizond influence to Rum's domain and enabling direct maritime trade routes with regions like and the . Kaykaus I promptly initiated reconstruction, including fortifications and a bilingual inscription commemorating the victory in and Greek, symbolizing administrative integration of the diverse population. This foothold facilitated and naval patrols, extending Seljuk influence along the northern Anatolian coast and countering Trebizond's regional ambitions. Subsequent campaigns leveraged Sinop's resources to probe further coastal territories, incorporating Turkmen settlements and subduing local resistances, though full consolidation awaited Kaykaus's successors. The conquest enhanced economic revenues through customs and fisheries, bolstering the sultanate's fiscal base amid ongoing rivalries with Georgian and Armenian powers.

Engagements with Neighboring Powers

Following the death of his father, , at the Battle of Antioch against the forces of in 1211, Kaykaus I prioritized stabilizing the Sultanate of Rum's western frontiers by negotiating a with the . This agreement, concluded shortly after his ascension, formally ended large-scale hostilities between the Seljuks and Nicaeans, allowing Kaykaus to redirect resources toward internal consolidation and northern expansion, though sporadic Turkmen raids continued to strain the border regions. Kaykaus maintained diplomatic coordination with in pressuring the , particularly after the Seljuk capture of Sinop in 1214–1215, which imposed vassalage and annual tribute on ; in January , Seljuk and Nicaean forces simultaneously invaded Trebizond territories, exploiting distractions from conflicts with the and to enforce compliance without direct joint operations. In 1216–1218, amid the War of the Antiochene Succession following the death of , Kaykaus exploited King Leo I of Cilician Armenia's preoccupation with claims to the principality by launching incursions north of the . Seljuk forces under Kaykaus captured multiple Armenian-held forts, compelling Leo to divert attention to defending core Cilician territories and thereby extending Rum's influence into border strongholds without a decisive . During the (1217–1221), Kaykaus formed a tactical with Crusader leaders, including Hungarian and Austrian contingents, authorizing or supporting diversionary raids into Ayyubid-held to relieve pressure on the main Crusader effort against in ; these actions forced Sultan to contend with a secondary front, though Seljuk involvement remained limited to opportunistic border engagements rather than sustained commitment.

Governance and Cultural Patronage

Architectural and Institutional Developments

During his reign, Kaykaus I patronized significant architectural projects that advanced both monumental construction and public welfare institutions in the . In 1217–1218, he commissioned the Şifaiye Medresesi in , a large complex measuring 48 by 68 meters designed to function as a darüşşifa (hospital) and medical specializing in , , and care. This structure, featuring a four- plan with an elaborate muqarnas-adorned portal and one iwan adapted as his tomb, stands as one of the finest surviving examples of Rum Seljuk monumental architecture, integrating therapeutic spaces like patient wards and a central dome for treatment halls. The foundation's dual role in education and healing reflected an institutional emphasis on and scholarly advancement, providing free care funded by endowments (waqfs) and attracting physicians trained in contemporary Islamic medical traditions. Kaykaus I's institutional developments extended to administrative adaptations for governing newly conquered territories with diverse populations. Following the 1214 capture of Sinop, he oversaw the erection of a bilingual Arabic-Greek inscription on the city's walls, commemorating works and signaling pragmatic policies toward Greek-speaking Christian subjects by incorporating their language in official proclamations. This rare Seljuk use of bilingual underscored efforts to legitimize rule and facilitate local administration in coastal regions, fostering via Black Sea trade routes while maintaining Islamic sovereignty. Such measures contributed to stabilizing the sultanate's expanded frontiers amid ethnic and .

Relations with the Assassins and Other Factions

Kaykaus I, ruling the Sultanate of Rum from 1211 to 1220, engaged in diplomatic correspondence with the grand master of the Nizari Ismailis, known as the Assassins, whose stronghold was in Alamut, Iran. This exchange, documented in contemporary chronicles such as those of Ibn Bībī (d. ca. 1285), reflected Kaykaus's strategic awareness of the Assassins' influence across Iran and Syria, incorporating their regional activities into his broader political calculations. To secure stability and avert potential threats from Assassin operatives, Kaykaus paid protection money to the group, formalizing a arrangement typical of pragmatic dealings with the Nizaris amid their conflicts with broader Seljuk and Abbasid authorities. His chief secretary managed these administrative interactions, underscoring the integration of such relations into Rum's governance without escalating to open hostilities. No records indicate direct military confrontations between Kaykaus's forces and Assassin strongholds during his reign, contrasting with the more adversarial Nizari-Seljuk clashes in Persia under earlier sultans. Relations with other factions, such as heterodox Turkmen tribal groups or regional Christian principalities, remained secondary to Kaykaus's primary focus on consolidation and expansion; however, evidence of systematic engagement is sparse beyond opportunistic alliances, like temporary pacts with Latin Crusaders against Ayyubid around 1218–1219, which served tactical ends rather than ideological alignment. These interactions highlight Kaykaus's realist approach, prioritizing empirical security over doctrinal confrontation with non-Sunni elements.

Death, Succession, and Legacy

Final Years and Demise

In the later phase of his reign, Kaykaus I focused on institutional and architectural patronage, including the commissioning of the Şifaiye Medresesi (also known as the Gök Medrese) in around 1217–1218, a complex serving as a , , and that exemplified Seljuk advancements in medical and educational facilities. The structure featured a planned chamber for the , reflecting his anticipation of mortality amid ongoing military endeavors. Kaykaus I's health deteriorated during an eastern military campaign, where he contracted , leading to his death in 1220 CE (616 AH). He was buried in the unfinished tomb at the Şifaiye Medresesi, underscoring the abrupt end to his rule and the incomplete state of some projects at his demise.

Immediate Succession and Long-Term Impact

Upon the unexpected death of Kaykaus I in 1220, his younger brother 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad, who had been held in confinement during Kaykaus's reign, was released and ascended the throne as without recorded major internal conflict. Kayqubad's succession marked a continuation of familial rule from their father , stabilizing the sultanate amid prior fraternal rivalries. Kaykaus I's territorial expansions, including the 1214 conquest of Sinop on the and fortification of on the Mediterranean, established vital maritime outlets that enhanced trade connectivity and revenue streams for the Seljuk state. These ports facilitated commerce with Byzantine, Trapezuntine, and Genoese merchants, injecting economic vitality that propelled the sultanate toward its zenith under Kayqubad I's administration from 1220 to 1237. His campaigns against regional powers like Trebizond and the Ayyubids also secured eastern frontiers, reducing vulnerabilities to nomadic incursions and enabling administrative consolidation. The institutional and architectural legacies of Kaykaus, such as madrasas and hospitals in cities like and , fostered urban development and intellectual patronage that persisted, contributing to Anatolia's cultural synthesis of Persian, Turkish, and local elements. However, the absence of a direct heir from Kaykaus I—his young sons did not prevail—highlighted the fragility of Seljuk dynastic transitions, foreshadowing later 13th-century partitions amid Mongol pressures. Overall, his nine-year rule bridged recovery from Crusader setbacks to peak prosperity, though Mongol incursions post-1243 diminished these gains.

Debates on Identity and Historical Sources

Kaykaus I, known fully as Izz al-Din Kaykaus ibn Kaykhusraw, is identified in historical records as the eldest son of Sultan Kaykhusraw I and ruler of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum from 608–616 AH (1211–1220 CE), a period marked by internal consolidation and coastal expansion. Primary epigraphic evidence, such as the bilingual inscription (Persian and Greek) on the walls of Sinop Citadel dated to 1215 CE, explicitly names him as sultan and commemorates his conquest of the city in 1214 CE, providing direct attestation of his authority and multilingual administrative approach to incorporate Greek-speaking populations. This inscription, preserved in situ, contrasts with potentially biased literary accounts by offering unaltered contemporary testimony, though its defacement in later periods highlights risks to such artifacts. Literary sources for Kaykaus I's reign draw from Persian chroniclers like Ibn Bibi, whose 13th-century al-Awamir al-Ala'iyya fi al-Umur al-Ala'iyya emphasizes Seljuk legitimacy and Persianate governance, potentially underrepresenting Turkic tribal elements or Christian influences in the court. Byzantine historians, such as George Akropolites, portray him through the lens of frontier conflicts, as in accounts of diplomatic exchanges and military engagements, which may exaggerate Seljuk aggression to align with imperial narratives. Syriac sources like those of Bar Hebraeus provide additional perspectives on his interactions with eastern powers, including the Assassins, but these are filtered through communal interests, necessitating cross-verification with inscriptions for causal accuracy. Scholarly debates on Kaykaus I's identity center on the hybrid cultural makeup of Seljuk elites, where Turkic origins intertwined with Byzantine and Persian influences via marriages and alliances; for instance, Christian maternal lineages among princes fostered dual affiliations, evident in practices and tolerance toward Christian communities during his expansions. Some analyses question the extent to which Muslim chroniclers minimized these Byzantine elements to assert Islamic , while epigraphic evidence like Sinop's Greek text suggests pragmatic inclusivity rather than assimilation. No major disputes exist on his or regnal dates, as corroborated across Persian, Byzantine, and material sources, though variant transliterations (e.g., Kay Kāʾūs) arise from script differences in , Persian, and Greek texts. Modern historiography privileges integrated approaches, weighing inscriptions' immediacy against chronicles' interpretive layers to reconstruct his role without over-relying on any single tradition's potentially factional emphases.

References

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