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Longitudinal engine
Longitudinal engine
Longitudinal engine
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Longitudinal engine in a three-wheeler chassis
Longitudinal inline-six cylinder engine in a Henderson De Luxe Supersix of 1926

In automotive engineering, a longitudinal engine is an internal combustion engine in which the crankshaft is oriented along the long axis of the vehicle, from front to back.[1][2]

This is in contrast to a transverse engine, where the crankshaft runs from side to side. Although there are many variations of cylinder number and layout, all car engines are either longitudinal or transverse.

Use

[edit]

This type of motor is usually used for rear-wheel drive cars, except for some Audi, SAAB, the Oldsmobile Toronado, and the 1967 Cadillac Eldorado equipped with longitudinal engines in front wheel drive. In front-wheel drive cars a transverse engine is usually used. Trucks often have longitudinal engines with rear-wheel drive.

For motorcycles, the use of a particular type depends on the drive: in the case of a chain or belt drive a transverse engine is usually used, and with shaft drives a longitudinal engine. Longitudinal engines in motorcycles do have one disadvantage: the "tipping point" of the crankshaft tilts along the entire motorcycle to a greater or lesser degree when accelerating. This is partly resolved by having other components, such as the generator and the gearbox, rotate in the opposite direction to the crankshaft.

Most larger, "premium" vehicles use the longitudinal engine orientation in combination with rear-wheel drive, because powerful engines such as the inline-6 and 90° big-bore V8 are usually too long to fit in a FF transverse engine bay. By contrast most mainstream modern vehicles use front-wheel drive along with a transverse engine arrangement since they are usually equipped with inline-4 or V6 engines. While both layouts can be adapted for all-wheel drive, the longitudinal engine orientation has a more balanced weight distribution leading to superior handling characteristics, but is less efficient in terms of packaging and interior space.[3]

Cars with longitudinal engines usually have a smaller minimum turning circle than those with transverse engines. This is because there is more space to the sides of the engine, allowing deeper wheel arches so the front wheels are able to turn through a greater angle.

In the late 1960s, GM divisions Oldsmobile and Cadillac had front-wheel drive models Toronado and Eldorado respectively, with a longitudinal V8 engine and an integrated automatic transmission and differential unit powering the front wheels. Honda and Toyota also offered front-wheel drive cars with longitudinal engines, namely Honda Vigor, Acura/Honda Legend/RL, and Toyota Tercel.

Common types

[edit]

The following is a list of typical examples of types of engines which can be placed in motor vehicles:

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Longitudinal engine

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from Grokipedia
A longitudinal engine, in , is an mounted such that its is oriented parallel to the vehicle's long axis, aligning with the direction of travel, often described as a "north-south" layout. This configuration contrasts with the transverse ("east-west") orientation, where the runs perpendicular to the vehicle's forward motion. Commonly employed in front-engine, rear-wheel-drive (RWD) vehicles, it allows for a direct inline connection from the to the transmission and driveshaft. Historically, the longitudinal layout dominated early automobile design, particularly in RWD configurations, as it facilitated straightforward power delivery to the rear wheels without complex gearing changes. Its prevalence began to shift in the mid- with the rise of front-wheel-drive (FWD) systems, which favored transverse mounting for better packaging in compact cars, though longitudinal engines persisted in performance and luxury segments for their balanced . Notable early adopters included luxury sedans and sports cars, evolving to include all-wheel-drive (AWD) applications by the late . Key advantages of longitudinal engines include superior front-to-rear weight balance—often approaching the ideal 50:50 ratio—which enhances handling and stability, especially in sports cars. They also accommodate larger-displacement engines more readily, supporting higher power outputs in premium vehicles. However, drawbacks encompass reduced space efficiency in the engine bay, potentially complicating interior packaging due to the inline transmission and driveshaft, and less suitability for compact FWD designs where weight biases forward. In contemporary vehicles, longitudinal engines remain prominent in RWD and AWD platforms from manufacturers like , , and , exemplified by models such as the , Audi A4/A6, and , where they contribute to dynamic driving characteristics. While the shift toward may diminish traditional engine orientations, the layout's principles continue to influence hybrid and performance powertrains.

Fundamentals

Definition

A longitudinal engine is an mounted in a such that its is oriented parallel to the 's longitudinal axis, which runs from front to rear along the direction of travel. The serves as the primary rotating shaft within the engine, connecting the reciprocating pistons to the and converting the generated by the pistons during the cycle into rotational motion to propel the . This alignment ensures that the engine block's cylinders are arranged in a front-to-rear configuration, optimizing the direct transfer of power along the 's length. In engine design, this longitudinal orientation contrasts with transverse mounting, where the runs perpendicular to the vehicle's forward direction.

Orientation and Layout

In the typical front-engine, rear-wheel-drive (FR) layout, a longitudinal is positioned at the front of the , with its aligned parallel to the direction of travel, often straddling or positioned ahead of the front . The transmission is mounted directly behind the along the vehicle's centerline, forming a compact power unit that extends longitudinally. A driveshaft then connects this assembly to the rear differential via a beneath floor, delivering to the rear wheels. This arrangement is visually represented in side-view diagrams as a linear sequence: the at the foremost point, followed by the bellhousing and gearbox, a propeller shaft running the length of the , and the rear assembly at the opposite end. The longitudinal orientation of the significantly influences packaging due to its extended length, typically requiring a longer and hood to house the components without compromising accessibility for . This placement shifts the firewall—the barrier separating the engine compartment from the passenger cabin—rearward, which can constrain front-seat legroom or necessitate adjustments in design to maintain ergonomic space. Additionally, the inline driveshaft occupies underfloor space, affecting the positioning of tanks, exhaust systems, and suspension elements, often resulting in a more elongated overall profile compared to transverse setups. Variants of longitudinal engine placement include mid-engine configurations, prevalent in sports cars, where the engine is mounted behind the passenger compartment but ahead of the rear , maintaining the crankshaft's fore-aft alignment. In this setup, the transmission is typically integrated close to the engine, with drive shafts routing power directly to the rear wheels, eliminating the need for a long central propshaft. This central positioning facilitates a balanced , such as the near 50/50 front-to-rear split targeted in vehicles like the , where the engine's mass is centered between the axles to optimize packaging around the and rear cargo area.

History

Early Development

The longitudinal engine configuration emerged in the late as a foundational element of early , with its first practical implementation in Karl Benz's 1886 Patent-Motorwagen. This three-wheeled vehicle featured a horizontal single-cylinder mounted longitudinally at the rear, producing 0.75 horsepower and oriented lengthwise along the frame to drive the rear wheels directly. Benz's innovation, patented on January 29, 1886 (DRP No. 37435), marked the debut of an aligned parallel to the vehicle's direction of travel, enabling basic propulsion in what is widely recognized as the world's first automobile. The design's orientation was necessitated by the technological constraints of the era, particularly the reliance on chain drives for to the rear wheels, which required a straight-line crankshaft alignment to minimize complexity and mechanical losses. This longitudinal setup provided efficient delivery without the need for complex gearing, suiting the rudimentary rear-wheel-drive architecture of early horseless carriages. As automobiles transitioned from experimental prototypes to more reliable machines, the layout persisted due to its compatibility with evolving shaft-drive systems, which similarly benefited from inline power flow. By the early , longitudinal engines evolved to incorporate multi-cylinder arrangements, enhancing power and smoothness while retaining the core orientation for simplicity. Pioneering firms like et Levassor advanced this in the 1890s with front-mounted inline multi-cylinder engines, standardizing the layout in four-wheeled vehicles through their "sysème Panhard." A landmark in mass adoption came with Henry Ford's 1908 Model T, which employed a longitudinally oriented inline four-cylinder at the front, generating 20 horsepower and powering over 15 million units via rear-wheel-drive shaft transmission. This configuration's straightforward integration with or shaft drives made it ideal for affordable, high-volume production, solidifying the longitudinal engine's role in early automotive standardization.

Adoption in Modern Vehicles

Following , longitudinal engines became a hallmark of American automotive design, particularly in the era of the through , where rear-wheel-drive layouts paired with powerful V8 configurations dominated the market. The Chevrolet small-block V8, introduced in , exemplified this trend, powering a wide array of vehicles from Corvettes to trucks and becoming a cornerstone of performance-oriented American engineering due to its compact size, versatility, and high output potential. In luxury and performance segments, longitudinal engines have persisted into the 2020s, notably in brands like and , which favor rear- or all-wheel-drive platforms for superior handling and weight distribution. BMW's rear-wheel-drive sedans and coupes, such as the 3 Series and 5 Series, continue to employ longitudinal inline-six and V8 engines for their balanced dynamics, a tradition maintained across model generations. Similarly, integrates longitudinal V6 and V8 powertrains in models like the E-Class and S-Class, emphasizing refinement and longitudinal placement to optimize crash safety and efficiency. The 1970s Clean Air Act and subsequent emission regulations, coupled with the , prompted a shift toward more fuel-efficient front-wheel-drive architectures with transverse engines, contributing to a decline in longitudinal adoption for mainstream vehicles as manufacturers prioritized packaging and economy. However, longitudinal layouts experienced a revival in high-performance hybrids during the , as seen in the , which combined a longitudinally mounted 4.6-liter V8 with electric motors for enhanced power delivery and all-wheel-drive capability. Globally, longitudinal engines remain prevalent in and for rear- and mid-engine vehicles, supporting sports cars and premium models where enhances traction and balance, while their use has declined in compact cars worldwide in favor of transverse setups for better space utilization and cost efficiency.

Applications

Passenger Cars

In passenger cars, longitudinal engine configurations are commonly employed in front-engine layouts for sedans and coupes, where the engine's orientation aligns with the vehicle's length to facilitate efficient power delivery to the . This setup is particularly prevalent in models equipped with all-wheel-drive (AWD) systems, such as the A4 quattro, which utilizes a longitudinal engine mounting to integrate the quattro permanent AWD technology, enabling balanced distribution to all wheels for enhanced traction and stability. Longitudinal engines find strong application in luxury and sports sedans, where the layout allows for optimal weight distribution closer to the vehicle's center of gravity, improving handling and ride quality in spacious chassis designs. For instance, the Jaguar XJ series, spanning variants from 1968 to its discontinuation in 2019, consistently featured front-longitudinal engine placement, supporting rear-wheel-drive dynamics that emphasize refinement and performance in executive transport. A notable trend in passenger car applications is the increasing integration of longitudinal engines with AWD systems to meet demands for all-season versatility without compromising interior space or comfort. Subaru's Legacy models exemplify this evolution, employing longitudinally mounted boxer engines paired with Symmetrical All-Wheel Drive, which positions the symmetrically for superior roadholding and in family-oriented sedans. This approach traces back to early adoption in premium European sedans during the late , evolving to suit modern consumer preferences for capable daily drivers.

Commercial and Performance Vehicles

In commercial vehicles such as trucks and SUVs, longitudinal engines are favored for their ability to deliver high and durability under heavy loads, particularly in rear-wheel-drive configurations that support substantial capacities. The Ford F-150, a staple in the segment since its introduction in 1975 as part of the F-Series lineage that traces back to the 1948 F-1, has long utilized longitudinal V8 engines, with options like the 5.0L V8 providing up to 13,500 pounds of capacity in recent models, a capability rooted in designs from the that emphasized robust power delivery for work duties. Similarly, the van employs longitudinal diesel engines in its rear-wheel-drive variants, such as the 2.0L four-cylinder turbo diesel offering 208 horsepower and 332 lb-ft of , enabling payloads up to 5,267 pounds while maintaining efficiency in commercial fleet operations. In performance vehicles, the longitudinal mid-engine layout excels by optimizing for superior handling and traction, placing the engine's mass behind the driver to bias weight toward the rear wheels. Formula 1 cars prior to the hybrid era (2006–2013) featured naturally aspirated 2.4L V8 engines mounted longitudinally in a mid-engine position, producing around 750–800 horsepower and contributing to lap times under 1:30 at circuits like through enhanced rearward balance and direct power routing. Supercars like the GTB (2015–2019) adopted a similar approach with its 3.9L V8 longitudinally positioned mid-ship, delivering 661 horsepower and a 41.5/58.5 front/rear that improved cornering grip and acceleration to 60 mph in 3.0 seconds. For specialized off-road applications, longitudinal engines in vehicles like the facilitate efficient via a straight-line driveshaft in its four-wheel-drive system, reducing energy loss and enhancing low-speed control on uneven terrain. The Defender's Ingenium 3.0L inline-six diesel, mounted longitudinally, supports a wading depth of 35.4 inches and approach angle of 38 degrees, attributes that underscore the layout's advantages in maintaining driveline integrity during extreme articulation. This contrasts with transverse setups in some passenger cars, where packaging constraints limit similar torque-heavy, rugged performance.

Design Considerations

Mounting and Integration

Longitudinal engines are typically secured to the vehicle using specialized mounting hardware designed to isolate and ensure structural integrity. Engine mounts, often constructed with rubber elements, provide flexibility in the horizontal longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes to absorb reactions and reduce (NVH) transmitted to the passenger compartment. These rubber-isolated mounts limit vibration transmissibility at frequencies above the engine's . Subframes, commonly employed in longitudinal configurations, form a rigid cradle that supports the engine and transmission assembly, enhancing stiffness and facilitating easier installation in modern unibody designs. The bellhousing, a bell-shaped at the rear of the , ensures precise alignment and bolting to the transmission, minimizing lateral by aligning with the plane and often incorporating housing plates for secure transfer. Integrating a longitudinal engine into the vehicle chassis presents specific challenges, particularly in all-wheel-drive (AWD) systems where alignment with the front axles is critical. In longitudinal AWD layouts, such as those in Audi's quattro system, the engine's north-south orientation necessitates a propshaft or transfer case to distribute power symmetrically to both axles, requiring precise positioning to avoid driveline binding and ensure balanced weight distribution. Space constraints in compact chassis further complicate fitment, as the extended length of the engine-transmission unit often demands a longer wheelbase to accommodate the assembly without encroaching on cabin space or increasing front overhang excessively. For instance, vehicles with longitudinal engines in smaller platforms may require inclined engine mounting or relocated radiators to mitigate packaging issues. Safety considerations in longitudinal engine mounting emphasize crash energy absorption, aligned with post-2000 standards that mandate effective deformation zones in frontal impacts. The subframe and longitudinal members (longerons) play a key role by deforming progressively to absorb , with finite element analyses showing longerons contributing the majority of absorption in offset frontal crashes. In full-width and offset deformable barrier tests, designs must limit occupant compartment intrusion, where the engine's forward position requires robust mounts to prevent rearward displacement into the firewall. Subframe configurations, such as those with energy-absorbing beams, have been shown to enhance overall by distributing loads and reducing peak accelerations in 5-star rated vehicles.

Balance and Drive Systems

In rear-wheel-drive (RWD) vehicles with longitudinal engines, power is delivered from the transmission output shaft through a propeller shaft to the rear differential, enabling efficient transmission along the vehicle's longitudinal axis. This configuration positions the engine ahead of the front axle, with the propeller shaft spanning the distance to the rear , which can influence due to the shaft's length affecting torque reaction forces on the during acceleration and deceleration. Longer propeller shafts may amplify driveline oscillations if not tuned properly, as the shaft's torsional interacts with the engine's output . Balance mechanisms in longitudinal engines primarily address inertial forces from reciprocating and rotating components. For inline engines, counterweights integrated into the offset the rotating masses of connecting rods and big-end bearings, achieving dynamic balance by counteracting centrifugal forces during operation. These counterweights are precisely machined to minimize vibrations, with designs often evaluated for mass reduction while maintaining a target balance factor, such as 50-60% for primary forces. In contrast, V8 configurations with a 90-degree V-angle and exhibit inherent primary balance, where the symmetric —typically 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2—cancels out first-order inertial forces without additional counterweights for those components. Vibration control in longitudinal setups focuses on mitigating torsional disturbances propagated through the extended torque path. Dual-mass flywheels, consisting of primary and secondary masses connected by springs and dampers, decouple torque fluctuations from the propeller shaft, effectively reducing second-order s that arise from reciprocating masses and are exacerbated by the drivetrain's length in RWD applications. balancers, rubber-damped pulleys attached to the nose, absorb torsional resonances at the engine's natural frequencies, preventing amplification of second-order harmonics along the longitudinal shaft to the differential. These devices are essential for smooth power delivery, as the inline or V-configuration's torque pulses can induce driveline shudder if unmitigated.

Configurations

Inline Engines

Inline engines, characterized by their cylinders arranged in a single straight row parallel to the , represent the most traditional configuration for longitudinal engine placements in automotive applications. This straight-line alignment simplifies manufacturing and maintenance, with the positioned directly above the block along the engine's length, facilitating efficient cooling and operation. Common variants include inline-four (I4), inline-five (I5), and inline-six (I6) setups, which have been widely adopted for their inherent balance properties in rear-wheel-drive vehicles where the engine's orientation aligns with the vehicle's longitudinal axis. A notable example of an inline-four in this context is the engine, a 2.0-liter overhead-valve unit produced from 1962 to 1988 and used in 1980s models like the E30 3 Series, where it was mounted longitudinally to power the rear wheels with outputs around 120 horsepower. For larger displacements, the 2JZ-GE inline-six, a 3.0-liter dual-overhead-cam engine introduced in 1991, exemplifies scalability; it delivered 220 horsepower in the longitudinal setup of the Toyota Supra MK4, leveraging its cast-iron block and aluminum head for durability in high-performance scenarios. These designs highlight how inline configurations align cylinders sequentially along the , optimizing travel and sequencing in extended engine bays. In longitudinal installations, the narrow width of inline engines—stemming from their single-bank cylinder arrangement—enables efficient integration with chassis, particularly by allowing a central floor tunnel for the driveshaft in rear-wheel-drive systems without compromising cabin space or structural integrity. This compactness in the transverse direction supports better and packaging flexibility compared to wider multi-bank alternatives. However, the primary limitation arises from the engine's increased length, especially in I5 and I6 variants, which extends the required hood dimensions to house the full span and ancillary components, potentially affecting aerodynamic profiles and overall proportions. Smoothness in inline-four engines is notably influenced by the standard of 1-3-4-2, which alternates power impulses between the two ends of the to minimize torsional vibrations and promote even flow, resulting in relatively refined operation despite secondary balance imbalances that may require counterweights for mitigation. This sequence enhances power delivery uniformity, contributing to the configuration's enduring appeal in applications prioritizing linear characteristics over absolute compactness.

V and Other Multi-Cylinder Types

V-type engines represent a branched configuration for multi-cylinder longitudinal setups, where two banks of cylinders diverge from a common at a specific angle to achieve compact dimensions while maintaining balance. The V6 configuration, commonly employing a 60-degree bank angle, allows for inherent primary balance through offset crankpins, reducing vibration without additional shafts. For instance, Nissan's VG30DE, a 3.0-liter DOHC V6 with a 60-degree V-angle, was mounted longitudinally in rear-wheel-drive vehicles like the 300ZX, delivering smooth operation and high performance. Some V6 designs adopt a 90-degree angle, such as certain historical or heavy-duty applications, to align with packaging needs in trucks, though this may require balance shafts for optimal smoothness. Bank offset in V engines, typically a few degrees between the cylinder banks and centerline, further minimizes secondary vibrations by aligning piston forces more evenly. In V8 longitudinal engines, the crankshaft design significantly influences balance and power delivery, with cross-plane and flat-plane variants offering distinct characteristics. The cross-plane crankshaft, featuring 90-degree offsets between crank pins, provides excellent primary and secondary balance for V8s at their standard 90-degree bank angle, making it ideal for trucks and sedans requiring low-end . Conversely, the flat-plane crankshaft arranges pins in a single plane at 180-degree intervals, enabling higher revving and even firing intervals but introducing more that demands careful tuning. This configuration suits applications, though cross-plane remains dominant in longitudinal setups for its smoother operation. Beyond V configurations, other multi-cylinder longitudinal engines include rare opposed-piston designs and adapted boxer layouts. The , a historical six-cylinder opposed-piston , featured two s per cylinder in an inline arrangement, mounted longitudinally in for its compact size and efficiency, though such designs saw limited automotive adoption due to complexity. Boxer engines, with horizontally opposed cylinders, can be adapted longitudinally, as in Porsche's flat-six, where the 180-degree opposed banks lie flat and slightly offset from the to lower the center of gravity and enhance balance in rear-engine sports cars. V8 longitudinal engines excel in power output for demanding applications, with torque curves emphasizing low-end pull for acceleration under load. ' LS series, such as the 5.3-liter V8, produces strong low-rpm —up to 383 lb-ft at 4,100 rpm in variants—facilitating and off-road performance in rear-wheel-drive platforms like the Silverado, thanks to its cross-plane crank and efficient port design.

Comparison to Transverse Engines

Layout Differences

Longitudinal engines are oriented with their aligned along the vehicle's primary axis, from front to rear, necessitating a longer engine bay to accommodate the 's length and the inline transmission or driveshaft connection. In contrast, transverse engines are mounted to the vehicle's direction of , allowing a more compact sideways fit within the engine compartment, particularly in front-wheel-drive configurations. This spatial arrangement in transverse setups reduces the overall length required for the , enabling greater front cabin space, such as increased legroom for passengers, compared to the extended hood profile often seen in longitudinal designs. Regarding drivetrain paths, longitudinal engines typically pair with rear-wheel-drive or all-wheel-drive systems, where the transmission connects directly behind the engine, routing power through a central propshaft to the rear . This layout requires a dedicated in the vehicle's floorpan to house the driveshaft, influencing the interior's central console design. Transverse engines, however, are commonly integrated with front-wheel-drive architectures using an end-loaded , where the transmission mounts to the side of the engine, delivering power directly to the front wheels via unequal-length driveshafts without needing a central . In terms of packaging, longitudinal orientations suit rear-drive platforms like the chassis, where the elongated engine bay supports larger inline or V-type engines while maintaining balanced proportions for sports sedans. Conversely, transverse layouts excel in compact front-wheel-drive vehicles such as the , optimizing the narrow engine bay for efficient space utilization and simpler manufacturing in urban-oriented models.

Performance and Efficiency Impacts

Longitudinal engine orientations in rear-wheel-drive (RWD) vehicles promote a rearward weight bias, placing more mass over the driven rear wheels to enhance traction during acceleration and improve overall handling stability. This configuration achieves a more balanced front-to-rear compared to transverse setups in front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, where engine mass is concentrated forward, often leading to increased understeer in corners. In all-wheel-drive (AWD) applications, the longitudinal layout supports effective to the rear , helping to mitigate understeer by optimizing power distribution for neutral handling dynamics. However, this orientation introduces higher frictional losses in the , primarily from the longer driveshaft and its associated U-joints, resulting in less efficient power delivery than the direct front- routing typical of transverse engines. Despite these losses, longitudinal setups excel in high-torque scenarios, such as performance vehicles, where the inline power path minimizes torsional flex and supports greater output without compromising straight-line propulsion. Engineering trade-offs favor longitudinal engines for dynamic but at the expense of and cost; the extended components increase weight and complexity, contributing to marginally higher fuel consumption and associated emissions in RWD configurations relative to compact transverse FWD designs. Manufacturing longitudinal assemblies is more expensive due to the need for additional parts like extended propshafts and reinforced differentials, raising production costs for vehicles prioritizing handling over economy.

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