Menhir

A menhir is a large, upright standing stone erected during the Neolithic period (approximately 5000–2000 BCE) as part of prehistoric megalithic cultures in Europe. The word "menhir" derives from the Breton terms maen (stone) and hir (long), reflecting its linguistic roots in the Celtic languages of western France.^[1] These monuments, also known as orthostats or liths, consist of roughly hewn or natural boulders set vertically into the ground, often singly or in groups, and can range from 1 to over 20 meters in height. Menhirs are predominantly distributed across western Europe, with the highest concentrations in Brittany, France—where approximately 6,000 examples survive, including the famous alignments at Carnac—and extending to Britain, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and parts of Scandinavia and the Mediterranean.^[2] Similar structures appear in other regions, such as India and Ethiopia, indicating broader megalithic traditions, though European examples date primarily to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age.^[3][4] Archaeological evidence links their construction to early farming communities, with stones sourced locally and transported using rudimentary technologies like levers and rollers.^[5] The precise function of menhirs remains uncertain, as no direct written records exist, but excavations reveal associations with burials, settlements, and ritual landscapes, suggesting roles in commemorative, territorial marking, or fertility rites.^[6] Some bear engravings of anthropomorphic figures, weapons, or abstract symbols, hinting at symbolic or religious significance, while alignments like those at Carnac may indicate astronomical alignments for solar or lunar observations. In contexts like Portugal and Britain, menhirs often coincide with early Neolithic settlements, supporting interpretations of cultural and ceremonial continuity.^[7] Ongoing research emphasizes their role in shaping prehistoric social identities and landscapes.^[8]

Terminology and Basics

Etymology

The term "menhir" derives from the Breton language, combining "maen" (stone) and "hir" (long), literally meaning "long stone," a descriptor that reflects the elongated, upright form of these prehistoric monuments.^[9] This etymology traces back to the Brittonic Celtic roots shared across languages like Breton and Welsh, where similar compounds emphasize the stone's verticality and mass.^[1] Introduced into French archaeological discourse in the late 18th century by the antiquarian Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne examining megalithic structures in Brittany, the word formalized a specific category of ancient upright stones previously described more generically. It gained traction through publications on Celtic antiquities, spreading to English and other European languages via 19th-century archaeological reports, with the first recorded English usage appearing around 1840.^[9] In related Celtic languages, analogous terms highlight comparable concepts: Welsh "maen hir" directly mirrors the Breton compound as "long stone," while Irish Gaelic employs "gallán" to denote a standing or pillar stone, often equating to a menhir in archaeological contexts.^[10] English synonyms such as "standing stone" or "orthostat" emerged as direct translations, avoiding the specificity of the Breton origin. Historically, "cromlech" has been misapplied to single menhirs in some English texts, though it correctly refers to circular arrangements of standing stones or certain dolmen structures on the European continent.^[11]

Definition and Characteristics

A menhir is defined as a large, prehistoric upright stone monument, consisting of a single megalith erected vertically into the ground, a single megalith that may stand alone or as part of larger arrangements such as alignments, but without chambered structures.^[12] The term originates from Breton "maen hir," meaning "long stone," reflecting its elongated form. Menhirs exhibit a range of physical attributes, with heights generally spanning 1 to 10 meters above ground, though most measure between 1 and 5 meters tall.^[13] Their weights vary correspondingly, from several tons for smaller examples to exceptional cases exceeding 300 tons.^[14] Surfaces are often rough or only minimally shaped, preserving the natural form of the stone while emphasizing its imposing verticality.^[15] Typological variations among menhirs include simple, undecorated uprights that prioritize raw monumentality, as well as more elaborate forms featuring engravings or carvings.^[16] Some exhibit anthropomorphic traits, such as incised human-like figures or symbolic motifs, suggesting symbolic enhancement beyond basic form.^[16] Menhirs are distinguished from other megalithic structures by their solitary, unchambered nature; unlike dolmens, which form covered burial chambers with horizontal capstones supported by uprights, or stone circles, which involve multiple stones arranged in concentric or linear patterns for ceremonial purposes.^[12]

Historical Context

Chronology and Dating

Menhirs were primarily erected during the Neolithic period, spanning approximately 5000 to 2500 BCE, with continued construction into the early Bronze Age until around 1500 BCE across much of Europe. This timeline reflects the broader development of megalithic traditions, where standing stones served as key monumental features in prehistoric landscapes. Radiocarbon dating of organic remains from associated settlement and ritual sites has established this framework, highlighting a peak in activity during the late Neolithic.^[17] The earliest evidence for menhirs comes from Brittany in northwestern France, where alignments such as those at Carnac have been dated through radiocarbon analysis of charcoal samples to between 4600 and 4300 BCE. These dates, derived from nearby monumental complexes, indicate that menhir erection began in coastal regions of western Europe during the early to mid-Neolithic, predating similar structures elsewhere on the continent. In contrast, regional variations show later adoption; in Britain and Ireland, menhir construction emerged around 3500 to 3000 BCE, persisting through the late Neolithic and into the early Bronze Age until approximately 2000 BCE, as confirmed by radiocarbon sequences from linked enclosure and burial contexts.^[18][19][20] While the core period of menhir erection tapered off by the late Bronze Age, some traditions extended into the early Iron Age in peripheral areas, particularly for engraved or statue-menhirs in the Iberian Peninsula and southern France, where radiocarbon and typological dating place examples from the late 2nd to early 1st millennium BCE. The decline in new menhir construction correlates with the widespread adoption of metalworking technologies starting around 2500 BCE, which introduced copper and bronze tools, weapons, and ornaments that reshaped social organization and ritual practices across Europe. This shift marked a transition away from large-scale stone monumentality toward more portable and metallurgical expressions of status and commemoration. For undecorated menhirs lacking direct dating material, chronology often relies on contextual associations rather than inherent physical traits like stone type or weathering patterns.^[21][22]

Archaeological Discoveries

Archaeological interest in menhirs began intensifying in the early 19th century, particularly in France, where scholars conducted systematic surveys to document and classify these prehistoric monuments. Alexandre Bertrand, a prominent French archaeologist and director of the Musée des Antiquités Nationales from 1879, played a pivotal role by initiating detailed studies of megalithic sites, including menhirs, through field surveys and publications in the Revue archéologique, which helped establish megaliths as key elements of prehistoric European culture.^[23] These efforts laid the groundwork for recognizing menhirs as Neolithic constructions, often associated with broader ceremonial landscapes. Major excavations in the 20th century focused on iconic sites like the Carnac alignments in Brittany, France, where investigations have been ongoing since the 1860s under various archaeological teams. Early digs revealed extensive rows of menhirs integrated with tumuli and enclosures, providing evidence of large-scale Neolithic activity spanning millennia. In the 2020s, renewed excavations and surveys at Carnac have uncovered additional alignments and refined dating, confirming some structures as among Europe's earliest megalithic monuments from around 4600 BCE, through radiocarbon analysis of associated organic remains.^[24][25] Key techniques employed in menhir archaeology include stratigraphy to interpret layered deposits around standing stones, revealing construction sequences and site use over time; pollen analysis of palaeosols beneath or near menhirs, which reconstructs contemporary vegetation and environmental conditions, as seen in Neolithic contexts in Brittany; and examination of artifact associations, such as pottery shards and tools found in proximity, to link menhirs to specific cultural phases.^[26][27] Recent advancements, such as LiDAR scans in southwestern Portugal during the 2020s, have identified previously hidden menhirs and megalithic features in landscapes like Alentejo and Beira Baixa, enhancing mapping of dispersed sites without invasive excavation.^[28] Additionally, post-2020 debates among archaeologists highlight climate change's role in menhir preservation, with increased erosion, freeze-thaw cycles, and coastal flooding accelerating stone deterioration at exposed sites.^[29]

Construction and Materials

Building Techniques

Archaeological evidence and experimental recreations indicate that prehistoric communities quarried menhirs using basic mechanical methods suited to hard stone types such as granite or orthogneiss. Workers employed stone hammers, antler picks, wooden wedges, and levers to split and extract large monoliths from bedrock outcrops, often inserting wedges into natural fissures or pre-cut grooves to propagate cracks. Fire-setting, where fires heated the rock followed by rapid quenching with water to induce thermal fracturing, may also have been used in some regions, though direct evidence for menhirs remains limited. In a 1979 experiment replicating Neolithic quarrying in France, three individuals extracted a 3m by 2.5m chalk slab using these tools within hours, demonstrating the feasibility for small teams on softer stones.^[30] Transportation of quarried stones to erection sites involved coordinated labor and simple mechanical aids, as evidenced by ethnoarchaeological analogies and modern simulations. Stones were typically dragged on wooden sledges or cradles over rollers made from tree trunks, with ropes of plant fibers like ivy or viburnum facilitating pulling. Experimental archaeology has shown that for a 32-ton monolith simulating a menhir, approximately 230 people could transport it 40 meters using 40cm-diameter wooden rollers. For the Grand Menhir Brisé, a 280-ton orthogneiss block moved 10km inland, estimates suggest 4,000 workers with basic rollers or as few as 100 with advanced pivoting techniques, taking over two weeks; alternatively, floating on rafts via tidal channels could have expedited the process to hours.^[30][31] Erecting menhirs required precise site preparation and leverage, with pits dug to about one-third the stone's length to provide stability once positioned. Workers likely used earthen ramps or A-frame wooden structures to tip the monolith upright, rocking it into the pit with levers and ropes while packing the base with stones or earth for support. For the Grand Menhir Brisé, a 2.5m-deep blocking pit accommodated the base, with the stone balanced via a pecked "hinge" at the bottom before final alignment. Experimental tests on similar megaliths confirm that ramps and cribwork (stacked wooden frames) allowed small teams to raise stones up to 10 tons, though larger examples like those over 100 tons demanded hundreds of participants. Some menhirs show alignments with astronomical features, achieved during erection by sighting along the stone's axis.^[31][32] Analysis of tool marks on menhir surfaces reveals shaping through pecking, grinding, and polishing, primarily using harder stones or early metal tools. Pecking involved repeated hammer blows with diorite or quartzite pounders to rough-shape the stone, creating pitted surfaces visible under magnification; this was followed by grinding with sandstone abrasives to smooth contours and polishing for finer finishes. Pre-Neolithic examples show predominantly flint or stone tools, while Bronze Age menhirs exhibit bronze chisel marks from abrasion-resistant alloys. These techniques left characteristic micro-fractures and striations, distinguishable from natural weathering through microscopic examination.^[33]

Stone Selection and Sourcing

Menhirs were primarily constructed from durable rock types such as granite, sandstone, and limestone, chosen for their hardness and resistance to erosion, which ensured longevity in exposed prehistoric landscapes. In Brittany, France, the vast alignments at Carnac consist of granite monoliths quarried from local sources, reflecting a preference for abundant, weather-resistant igneous rocks that required minimal transport.^[34] Sandstone examples appear in central Europe, such as the decorated menhir at Langeneichstädt, Germany, valued for its fine grain allowing subtle engravings while maintaining structural integrity.^[35] Limestone menhirs, though less common, are documented in southwestern Europe, including a prominent example at Aspradantes in Portugal, selected for its availability in coastal regions and ease of shaping despite lower durability compared to harder stones.^[36] Petrographic and geochemical analyses have provided critical evidence for sourcing these materials, often linking menhir stones directly to nearby quarries through mineral composition and trace elements. In central-western Sardinia, Italy, studies of Copper Age anthropomorphic menhirs from Allai and Laconi identified basaltic and andesitic rocks from the local Monte Arci volcanic complex, with experimental assessments confirming high workability and durability as key factors in their selection.^[37] In Brittany, similar analyses trace granite to regional outcrops, with transport distances typically under 10 km, as seen in the massive slabs for the Locmariaquer complex, though some evidence suggests organized movement up to 50 km for specific monuments, highlighting prehistoric logistical capabilities. Selection criteria extended beyond mere availability to include the stone's inherent properties, such as natural shapes that lent themselves to anthropomorphic interpretations without extensive modification. Many statue-menhirs in Sardinia and Iberia exploited elongated, shouldered boulders to evoke human forms, minimizing labor while enhancing symbolic resonance.^[38] Some hard rocks were chosen for acoustic qualities, with numerical modeling of Neolithic stone arrangements indicating low-frequency resonances in menhir settlements, potentially related to ritual or environmental functions.^[39] Color may have played a symbolic role in rare instances, as certain reddish or bluish stones evoked associations with blood, sky, or earth, though direct evidence remains limited to broader megalithic pigment use. While most menhirs utilized local materials to reduce effort, rare cases involved long-distance importation, underscoring cultural or ritual significance. In British prehistoric sites, bluestones—dolerites and rhyolites—from Welsh quarries approximately 200 km away were erected as standing stones, their transport likely tied to ancestral or sacred origins rather than practicality.^[40] Such variations contrast with the predominant local-sourcing strategy, where quarrying and basic shaping techniques were adapted to the selected stone's properties for efficient erection.

Purpose and Symbolism

Functional Theories

One prominent functional theory posits that menhirs served as territorial markers, delineating boundaries for land claims or clan territories in prehistoric societies. In southwestern Atlantic Europe, standing stones, including menhirs, are interpreted as symbols of social structure and territoriality among complex appropriator communities, with their placement reflecting claims over resources and identity assertion through recurring symbolic decorations. Archaeological evidence from permanent settlement sites in this region supports this view, showing menhirs integrated into landscapes that emphasize communal control over territory.^[41] Menhirs also appear to have played ceremonial roles, functioning as focal points for rituals, communal gatherings, or possibly executions, often evidenced by associated archaeological features like bone pits. At sites such as the Ossimo 'Anvòia' ceremonial complex in Val Camonica, Italy, statue-menhirs are linked to the manipulation of human and animal remains, including calcined bones, suggesting structured funerary or sacrificial practices where stones anchored ritual activities. These associations indicate menhirs facilitated social and spiritual transitions, with bone deposits nearby implying ceremonies involving the dead or communal rites.^[42] Astronomical functions represent another key hypothesis, with many menhirs aligned to track solar events like solstices, aiding in calendrical or seasonal observations. In Brittany, France, the Carnac alignments, comprising thousands of menhirs, include orientations toward the winter solstice sunset, as seen with the now-fallen Grand Menhir Brisé, which was positioned to mark this celestial event. Broader European examples, such as solitary menhirs in western France, further demonstrate precise alignments with solstice risings or settings, underscoring their practical role in timekeeping for agricultural or ritual cycles.^[43][44][45] Economic uses of menhirs may have included serving as waymarkers along trade routes or indicators of resource points, guiding movement through landscapes. In prehistoric Britain and Europe, linear arrangements of standing stones are hypothesized to have marked paths for travelers, fords, or safe crossings over difficult terrain, facilitating exchange of goods like flint or metals. Evidence from site distributions near known prehistoric trade networks supports this, portraying menhirs as infrastructural elements in early economic systems rather than purely symbolic fixtures.^[46]

Interpretations of Meaning

One prominent interpretation of menhirs posits them as symbols of ancestor veneration, functioning as memorials to the deceased or links to ancestral spirits. These standing stones are frequently associated with burial contexts in Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe, where engravings of axes, weapons, or anthropomorphic figures on statue-menhirs—such as those in northern Italy and southern France—may represent offerings, status symbols, or representations of the honored dead, reinforcing communal ties to forebears. The phallic shape of many menhirs has led scholars to view them as fertility symbols, particularly in relation to agricultural rites that sought to ensure bountiful harvests and human reproduction. Engravings on menhirs, including phallic motifs alongside spirals or crosiers at sites like the Almendres Cromlech in Portugal, support this reading, suggesting rituals invoking generative forces in the landscape.^[47] From a cosmological perspective, menhirs embody structuralist ideas of connecting the earthly and celestial realms, often interpreted as axes mundi that symbolize the center of the world and facilitate communication between sky, earth, and underworld. This view draws on the work of Mircea Eliade, who described megalithic stones as hierophanies—manifestations of the sacred—erected to sacralize space and mimic cosmic pillars in prehistoric cosmologies. Modern scholarly debates since 2000 have critiqued phallic interpretations of menhirs for embedding gender biases, noting that assumptions of inherent masculinity in standing stones often overlook female or non-binary symbolism in engravings and ignore the androcentric lenses of early 20th-century archaeology. Analyses of statue-menhirs reveal regional variations where daggers or other motifs were once reflexively deemed phallic, prompting calls for more nuanced, evidence-based approaches to gender in megalithic symbolism. Some menhirs' astronomical alignments further underscore their role as symbolic mediators between human and cosmic orders.^[48]

Distribution and Examples

European Concentrations

Europe's menhir distributions are most pronounced along the Atlantic facade, with Brittany in northwestern France hosting the densest concentrations. Archaeological estimates indicate between 1,100 and 1,200 surviving menhirs in this region, primarily from the Neolithic period.^[49] The Carnac alignments in Morbihan exemplify this density, comprising over 3,000 standing stones arranged in parallel rows and enclosures that extend for several kilometers, forming one of the largest megalithic complexes in the world.^[50] These structures, erected around 4500–3300 BCE, highlight Brittany's role as a megalithic epicenter.^[51] In the British Isles, menhirs occur more sporadically but still number in the hundreds across England, Scotland, and Ireland. England's Rudston Monolith, a prominent isolated example in East Yorkshire, rises to 7.6 meters in height, making it the tallest prehistoric standing stone in the United Kingdom and dating to the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age.^[52] Scotland features numerous such monuments, with archaeological records documenting over 1,200 standing stones, often in coastal or upland settings like the Callanish Stones on the Isle of Lewis.^[53] In Ireland, standing stones are widespread, with clusters such as the over 120 surviving standing stones in the Timoney Hills of County Tipperary, part of an original cluster of around 245, illustrating regional variability in form and placement.^[54] Further south in Iberia, menhir concentrations cluster along the western coast, particularly in Portugal and Galicia, Spain. The Almendres Cromlech near Évora, Portugal, consists of about 95 menhirs arranged in twin circular formations, representing the largest structured group on the Iberian Peninsula and dating to the late Neolithic (ca. 5000–4000 BCE).^[55] In Galicia, northwestern Spain, menhirs integrate into broader megalithic landscapes, with notable densities in areas like Campo Lameiro, where they form part of extensive Neolithic complexes alongside dolmens and petroglyphs.^[56] Menhir patterns across Europe vary from isolated uprights to elaborate linear alignments and avenues, reflecting diverse cultural practices. Density maps reveal a strong focus on the Atlantic seaboard, from Brittany to Iberia, where environmental and maritime influences likely shaped their erection and arrangement.^[57] This coastal emphasis underscores connections in prehistoric networks along Europe's western edge.^[58]

Worldwide Sites

In Africa, the Senegambian stone circles represent one of the most extensive concentrations of megalithic monuments outside Europe, featuring upright standing stones analogous to menhirs arranged in circular formations. These structures, erected between the 8th century BCE and the 16th century CE, comprise over 1,000 monuments across approximately 300 sites spanning a 100 km-wide band along 350 km of the Gambia River, with notable examples including 11 circles at Wassu containing 1,102 carved laterite stones averaging 2 meters in height.^[59] The individual standing stones, often placed in groups of 8 to 14 per circle with diameters of 4 to 6 meters, served ceremonial purposes and demonstrate advanced quarrying and erection techniques using local laterite.^[59] In Asia, megalithic traditions in southern India, particularly in Kerala, include menhirs erected as memorial markers during the Iron Age, dating from around 1000 BCE to 500 CE. These upright granite or laterite slabs, varying from 1 to over 3 meters in height, were commonly positioned near burial sites or paths to commemorate the deceased, with examples such as the large menhir on Pothamala hills exemplifying their solitary or grouped placements in commemorative landscapes.^[60] Similarly, on Jeju Island in South Korea, dol hareubang are carved anthropomorphic statues of upright volcanic stone figures, up to 3 meters tall, originally placed at fortress gates as protective guardians from the 18th century onward, though rooted in earlier animistic traditions and analogous but distinct from plain menhirs.^[61] In the Americas, potential pre-Columbian menhir-like structures are debated, with the Ingá Stone in Brazil's Paraíba state serving as a prominent example of a large sandstone slab, approximately 24 meters long and 3.5 meters high, bearing over 400 petroglyphs possibly carved by indigenous peoples between 6000 BCE and the colonial era, though some geologists argue aspects may be natural formations modified by humans.^[62] Further north, certain Native American medicine wheels in the Great Plains, such as the Bighorn Medicine Wheel in Wyoming, incorporate central stone cairns within circular arrangements of spokes and rims, constructed over millennia for astronomical and ceremonial alignment, with the central feature often symbolizing spiritual focus in traditions of Plains tribes like the Crow and Shoshone.^[63] Recent archaeological surveys in Australia have identified Indigenous stone arrangements as cultural analogs to menhirs, including upright standing stones deliberately positioned for ceremonial or navigational purposes, as documented in Victorian and Tasmanian sites where such features form part of broader patterns dating back thousands of years. For instance, 2024 assessments of Aboriginal heritage in southeastern Australia highlight vertically wedged stones in ritual contexts, underscoring their role in maintaining cultural landscapes akin to global megalithic practices.^[64][65]

Cultural and Modern Significance

Role in Prehistoric Societies

The erection of menhirs in prehistoric Europe demanded considerable communal labor, reflecting organized social structures that could coordinate collective efforts across communities. These monuments, often weighing several tons and standing several meters high, required teams potentially numbering in the hundreds for quarrying, transportation, and upright positioning using levers, ropes, and earthen ramps, underscoring either egalitarian cooperation or hierarchical leadership to orchestrate such projects.^[66] This mobilization of unskilled yet coordinated labor highlights the role of menhirs in fostering social cohesion and demonstrating communal capability in Neolithic and Bronze Age societies.^[12] Menhirs were embedded within expansive ritual landscapes, frequently aligned with burial mounds, passage tombs, and other megalithic features, suggesting their integration into funerary and ceremonial practices that reinforced community bonds and possibly elite oversight of sacred territories. The strategic placement of menhirs near ancestral burial sites indicates they served as focal points for rituals honoring the dead or marking territorial claims, with evidence from associated deposits pointing to controlled access and performative gatherings under influential figures.^[57] Such complexes imply that menhirs contributed to the social fabric by symbolizing shared ancestry and authority over ritual spaces.^[67] Artifacts linked to menhir sites, particularly engraved statue-menhirs depicting human forms with gendered attributes like weapons for males or jewelry for females, suggest ceremonies involving these stones incorporated community-wide participation, potentially with differentiated roles based on gender. These representations imply inclusive rituals where both men and women engaged in commemorative or fertility-related activities, reflecting broader social dynamics of identity and belonging in prehistoric groups.^[68] The enduring role of menhirs is evident in their adaptation during later periods, such as in medieval Europe where missionaries and monks repurposed standing stones by inscribing or topping them with Christian crosses, thereby integrating prehistoric sacred elements into emerging religious frameworks and maintaining continuity in landscape-based social practices.^[69] This reuse underscores how menhirs persisted as markers of communal memory and ritual authority across millennia.^[70]

Depictions in Contemporary Culture

In Breton folklore, menhirs are often attributed to the labors of giants, who are said to have erected these massive stones as part of ancient feats or punishments, embedding them into the landscape as enduring markers of supernatural strength.^[71] Similarly, British monoliths feature in Arthurian legends, such as Arthur's Stone in Herefordshire, a Neolithic chambered tomb mythically linked to King Arthur hurling the capstone into place during a battle with a giant, symbolizing heroic prowess and territorial dominance.^[72] Menhirs appear in modern literature and film as evocative symbols of ancient mystery and otherworldly power. In J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, standing stones mark the haunted Barrow-downs, serving as ominous remnants of a forgotten kingdom that heighten the narrative's atmosphere of peril and antiquity.^[73] These depictions draw on menhirs' prehistoric aura to evoke timeless landscapes fraught with hidden histories. Twentieth-century surrealist artists, including Max Ernst, incorporated stone forms reminiscent of menhirs into their work, using carved and painted rocks to explore themes of primal energy and the subconscious, as seen in Ernst's 1930s stone sculptures that mimic upright monoliths to blur natural and human-made boundaries.^[74] In contemporary contexts, modern pagan revivals, particularly Druidic groups, integrate menhirs into rituals at sites like Stonehenge, where standing stones facilitate ceremonies of seasonal alignment, spiritual connection, and earth-centered worship, reviving prehistoric symbolism for personal and communal renewal.^[75] Tourism at menhir sites profoundly shapes cultural identity, with Stonehenge serving as a cornerstone of British heritage, attracting approximately 1.4 million visitors in 2024 and fostering a sense of national continuity through its iconic status in popular imagination and media.^[76] Preservation efforts highlight ongoing challenges, including a 2025 global assessment of UNESCO World Heritage sites emphasizing climate threats like increased erosion from wetter winters and extreme weather, which endanger the structural integrity of these monuments including Stonehenge and underscore their vulnerability in a changing environment.^[77]