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For other uses, see Mojarra (disambiguation).

Mojarra
Temporal range: Late Oligocene to present Possible Early Eocene occurrence
Gerres equulus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Acanthuriformes
Family: Gerreidae
Bleeker, 1859[1]
Genera

See text.

The mojarras are a family, Gerreidae, of fish in the order Perciformes. The family includes about 53 species found worldwide in tropical and warm temperate regions. They mostly inhabit coastal salt and brackish waters, although some occur in fresh water.

Mojarras are a common prey and bait fish in many parts of the world, including the South American coast and Caribbean islands, as well as the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Coast of North America.[2] These species tend to be difficult to identify in the field, and often require microscopic examination. Most species exhibit a schooling behavior and tend to exploit the shallow water refugia associated with coastal areas presumably to avoid large-bodied predators, such as the lemon shark.[3]

Mojarra is also commonly used in Latin American countries as a name for various species of the cichlid family, including tilapia.

Genera

[edit]

The 10 genera currently assigned to this family are:[4][5]

These fossil genera are also known:[6]

Timeline

[edit]
QuaternaryNeogenePaleogeneHolocenePleist.Plio.MioceneOligoceneEocenePaleocenePentaprionGerresQuaternaryNeogenePaleogeneHolocenePleist.Plio.MioceneOligoceneEocenePaleocene

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mojarra

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Mojarras (family Gerreidae) are a group of approximately 53 of small to medium-sized perciform fishes, typically silvery in color with compressed bodies, deeply forked caudal fins, and highly protrusible mouths that form a tubular extension when feeding. These fishes, reaching lengths up to 50 cm, are distinguished by their two dorsal fins—the anterior with 7-9 spines and the posterior with 1 spine and 7-9 rays—and an anal fin with 3 spines and 6-9 rays. Gerreids inhabit a wide range of tropical and subtropical environments, including marine coastal waters, estuaries, mangroves, beds, and occasionally freshwater streams, often forming dense schools in shallow, sandy or muddy substrates. Distributed globally in warm temperate to tropical seas, they are particularly abundant in the , Atlantic, and eastern Pacific regions, with species like the silver jenny (Eucinostomus gula) common in the western Atlantic. Their adaptability to brackish conditions allows them to thrive in dynamic coastal ecosystems. Ecologically, mojarra species play key roles as benthic feeders, using their protrusible mouths to sift sand and for small , , , and , thereby contributing to nutrient cycling in nearshore habitats. They serve as important prey for larger predatory fishes and birds, supporting food webs in estuaries and bays, and exhibit diverse life histories including open-water spawning without . Commercially, gerreids are valued as food and bait fishes in artisanal fisheries across , the , and , where species are often prepared fried whole as "mojarra frita."

Taxonomy and Etymology

Etymology

The term "mojarra" derives from American Spanish, borrowed from Spanish usage denoting a "lance head" or small flat found off the coast of , ultimately tracing back to the Arabic muḥarrab ("pointed"), from the verb ḥarraba ("to sharpen"), likely referring to the fish's distinctive protrusible mouth or slender, pointed shape. This etymology reflects early associations with European sea bream-like species, such as Diplodus vulgaris, before the name's in the . In Spanish-speaking regions of the , "mojarra" has historically described small, silvery coastal fish belonging to the family Gerreidae, emphasizing their common occurrence in estuarine and nearshore environments. The name's application has extended beyond Gerreidae to unrelated freshwater cichlids, including species, in various Latin American contexts, though its primary zoological reference remains the mojarras proper. The scientific family name Gerreidae originates from the genus Gerres, derived from the Latin gerres (genitive gerres), an ancient term cited by Pliny the Elder for a type of anchovy or similar small marine fish, underscoring the group's longstanding recognition in classical natural history.

Taxonomic History

The family Gerreidae was initially recognized and described in the early 19th century as part of the order Perciformes by naturalists Georges Cuvier and Achille Valenciennes in their comprehensive work Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, where multiple genera and species of mojarras were classified within the suborder Percoidei based on morphological characteristics such as protrusible mouths and compressed bodies. The formal family name Gerreidae was established later by Pieter Bleeker in 1859, solidifying its distinction as a separate taxonomic unit from related perciform groups. Throughout the 20th century, classifications placed Gerreidae firmly within the suborder Percoidei of , with key revisions emphasizing its separation from families like Haemulidae (grunts) due to differences in , head profile, and fin structure, as detailed in systematic works by ichthyologists such as and Barton Warren Evermann. These morphological distinctions were reinforced in regional faunal studies, confirming Gerreidae's unique adaptations for benthic feeding in tropical and subtropical waters. Post-2000 molecular phylogenetic studies shifted Gerreidae's placement from the traditional to the broader , based on analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences that revealed rearrangements within perciform lineages. A seminal 2007 study using sequence data from four genes confirmed the monophyly of Gerreidae and its sister relationship to other percomorph families, resolving earlier uncertainties about its internal structure and higher-level affinities. Subsequent 2010s research, including comprehensive phylogenies of over 1,900 fish species, further integrated Gerreidae into 's series Eupercaria as order Gerreiformes, supported by genomic data highlighting its evolutionary divergence. Historical debates on Gerreidae's , stemming from morphological ambiguities in early classifications, were largely resolved by 2020s analyses incorporating and mitogenomic data, which affirmed the family's integrity across its approximately 55 (as of 2025) while identifying cryptic diversity in certain genera.

Genera and Species

The family Gerreidae comprises 7 genera and approximately 55 species (as of 2025), primarily inhabiting tropical and subtropical coastal waters worldwide. The genera are Deckertichthys, Diapterus, Eucinostomus, Eugerres, Gerres, Parequula, and Pentaprion. The type genus Gerres contains about 30 species, representing the majority of the family's diversity, including Gerres cinereus (yellowfin mojarra), a widespread Indo-West Pacific species. Other prominent genera include Eucinostomus, with approximately 12 species adapted to estuarine environments, such as Eucinostomus harengulus (tidewater mojarra) in the western Atlantic; Diapterus, encompassing 5 species like Diapterus rhombeus (rhomboid mojarra) in the tropical Americas; and Eugerres, with 8 species in eastern Pacific and Atlantic waters. Species diversity is highest in the region, with over 30 mainly within Gerres, compared to 15-20 species in the Atlantic across genera like Eucinostomus and Diapterus; the eastern Pacific features endemics such as Eucinostomus currani (Pacific flagfin mojarra). The family Gerreidae is classified within the of the series Eupercaria. Phylogenetic analyses reveal close relationships among genera, particularly in the western Atlantic where divergences between lineages like Eucinostomus and Diapterus occurred around 7 million years ago. Fossil records, including specimens from such as Pharisatichthys aquensis, indicate the Gerres lineage diverged approximately 20-30 million years ago.

Physical Description

Morphology

Mojarras, members of the family Gerreidae, possess a deep, laterally compressed rhomboidal body shape that facilitates maneuverability in shallow, vegetated waters. This compressed form, with body depth varying from slender to notably deep (1.7 to 3.3 times in standard length), supports rapid turns and evasion among and mangroves. The is highly protrusible and tube-like, adapted for bottom-feeding on sifted from . The mouth extends ventrally to form a tube-like structure, pointing downward when protracted. The jaws appear nearly toothless, bearing only small villiform teeth, with none on the or . Fin structure includes a notched dorsal fin with spines and soft rays, often deeply notched between the spinous and soft portions, and an anal fin with three spines (the second notably stout) and soft rays; both fins have scaled sheaths along their bases. The caudal fin is deeply forked, promoting agile propulsion, while the pectoral fins are long and pointed, and the pelvics originate below or behind the pectoral base, featuring a long axillary scale process. The body and most of the head are covered in , moderately large, deciduous scales that impart a silvery sheen. The is complete, typically comprising 40-50 pored scales to the caudal fin base. Sensory adaptations include well-developed eyes positioned high on the head for enhanced visibility above the substrate, and the absence of barbels. This silvery coloration aids in open waters and among .

Size, Coloration, and Variation

Mojarras in the family Gerreidae typically attain average total lengths (TL) of 10-30 cm, with juveniles measuring under 5 cm upon settlement. Larger species, such as Gerres argyreus, can reach maxima of up to 40 cm TL, while others like Gerres filamentosus grow to about 30 cm TL. The coloration of mojarra species is predominantly silvery-blue on the sides, accented by darker to hues on the dorsal surface, providing effective camouflage in coastal waters. This iridescent sheen arises from crystals embedded in iridophores within the scales, which reflect light to blend with the underwater background and reduce visibility to predators. Intraspecific and interspecific variations in coloration include longitudinal dark stripes along the scale rows in species such as Eucinostomus gula (silver jenny) and faint midlateral spots or bars in Diapterus aureolus (golden mojarra), often more prominent in juveniles. is generally minimal, but breeding males in certain species like Eugerres plumieri (striped mojarra) display brighter yellow or orange tones in the fins and operculum during spawning.

Distribution and Habitat

Global Distribution

The family Gerreidae displays a predominantly distribution, inhabiting warm coastal waters across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, with a total of approximately 53 species documented worldwide. This circumglobal presence is characteristic of tropical to subtropical marine environments, though occurrences extend into temperate zones in some regions. Chiefly marine, the family occasionally ventures into brackish waters, reflecting their adaptability to varying salinities. In the Western Atlantic, Gerreidae species are well-represented from , , southward to , encompassing the , , and surrounding islands such as and the . Populations in the eastern Atlantic are notably rare, limited to scattered occurrences along West African coasts, including areas like the Islands. The Indo-Pacific realm forms the core of the family's range, extending from through the to , , and the West Pacific islands, where species thrive in diverse coastal settings. Additionally, the eastern Pacific hosts populations from to , including the , though with lower overall abundance compared to other basins. Biogeographically, the represents the primary center of diversity for the family, while centers of endemism occur in the Eastern Pacific, with 10 endemic among 11 total in the region, and in the , where cryptic diversity and phylogeographic structuring are evident among . While no Gerreidae are true freshwater endemics, many exhibit tolerance, enabling survival in gradients from near-freshwater to hypersaline conditions without permanent residency in inland systems.

Habitat Preferences

Mojarra , belonging to the Gerreidae, primarily inhabit shallow coastal waters ranging from 0 to 20 meters in depth, including bays, lagoons, and surf zones characterized by sandy or muddy bottoms. These environments provide suitable conditions for their and shelter needs, with many showing a preference for areas with minimal structural complexity but ample soft substrate. They exhibit high tolerance to fluctuations, thriving in estuarine and brackish systems where salinity levels vary from 0 to 35 parts per thousand (ppt), encompassing fresh, brackish, and full marine conditions. This adaptability allows them to frequently occupy forests and beds, such as those dominated by Thalassia , which offer protective cover and abundant microhabitats. Mojarras interact closely with soft sediments, using protrusible mouths to in sandy or muddy substrates while generally avoiding areas with strong currents; however, they tolerate tidal influences in dynamic zones like mouths. Juveniles often occupy more protected microhabitats, such as inlets and lagoons with reduced wave exposure, while adults shift to open shallow areas; for instance, in the genus Eucinostomus may venture into low-salinity rivers during certain life stages.

Ecology and Behavior

Feeding Habits

Mojarras, members of the family Gerreidae, are primarily benthivorous fishes whose diet consists mainly of small such as copepods, polychaetes, amphipods, ostracods, and tanaidaceans, supplemented by , , and unidentified sifted from the substrate. This feeding strategy allows them to exploit the rich benthic resources in estuarine and coastal environments, where they often form large shoals to forage efficiently. Their foraging mechanism relies on a highly protrusible, downward-pointing that can extend to facilitate feeding, enabling the ingestion of layers from the bottom substrate while expelling unwanted sand and debris through the gills. The specialized tubular morphology supports this , allowing access to buried prey in soft sediments. Ontogenetic diet shifts occur across life stages: larvae are planktivorous, primarily consuming ; juveniles adopt a more omnivorous diet with increased intake of matter and ; and adults shift to predominantly animal-based foods, comprising 70-90% by volume. These changes reflect adaptations to varying availability and morphological development. As low-level carnivores with a ranging from 3.0 to 3.5, mojarra play a key role in energy transfer within estuarine food webs.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Mojarra in the family Gerreidae exhibit marine spawning in offshore waters, where females release pelagic eggs. These eggs hatch within 18 to 24 hours into yolk-sac larvae, and no is provided following spawning. Fecundity in Gerreidae ranges from approximately 16,000 to over 800,000 eggs per female, with lower estimates of 10,000 to 50,000 common in smaller species; spawning activity peaks during warm months, such as summer in tropical regions. These fishes are gonochoristic, with distinct sexes and no hermaphroditism observed. Following hatching, Gerreidae larvae undergo a pelagic phase, drifting with currents toward coastal areas before settling into estuarine habitats at total lengths of 10 to 15 . Juveniles utilize these estuarine environments for growth, attaining within 6 to 12 months. The typical lifespan ranges from 2 to 5 years, though some species reach up to 8 years. In species-specific examples, Diapterus rhombeus demonstrates multiple spawning bouts annually, often in late summer, with courtship behaviors including high-speed erratic swimming and preparation of spawning sites near roots.

Social and Migratory Behavior

Mojarras (family Gerreidae) commonly exhibit schooling behavior, forming loose aggregations typically ranging from 10 to 100 individuals, particularly among juveniles, to facilitate foraging on benthic and enhance predator avoidance in coastal and estuarine environments. These schools are often species-specific and occur over sandy or muddy bottoms, where the fish can exploit protrusible mouths to sift food from sediments while maintaining group cohesion for safety. Interspecific associations also arise in mixed assemblages, such as with juvenile , where mojarras provide for selection and . Diel activity patterns in mojarra populations are predominantly diurnal, with heightened and movement in shallow coastal waters during daylight hours, followed by retreats to deeper or structured habitats like s at night to reduce predation . Tidal influences further drive short-term migrations, especially in estuarine settings, where species like the flagfin mojarra (Eucinostomus melanopterus) undertake flood-tide movements into mangrove ecotones to access food resources such as microcrustaceans, returning on ebb tides. Territoriality among mojarras is generally minimal outside of breeding periods, though some species, such as the common silverbiddy (Gerres oyena), display brief territorial defense of small areas on rocky substrates during aggregation formation. In contrast, reproductive behaviors in species like the rhomboid mojarra (Diapterus rhombeus) involve group-based nest clearing without evident pair-specific territory guarding. Long-distance movements in mojarras are limited, with most populations showing localized coastal distributions; however, certain species like the blackfin mojarra (Eugerres brasilianus) undertake seasonal migrations between freshwater and marine habitats for , spanning tens of kilometers. Ontogenetic shifts are prominent, transitioning from pelagic larval stages in open waters to benthic juvenile phases in protected estuaries and mangroves, before adults occupy nearshore sandy areas. These changes support growth and reduce vulnerability, with juveniles often in denser schools than adults.

Human Interactions

Fisheries and Economic Importance

Mojarra species from the family Gerreidae are primarily targeted in artisanal coastal fisheries across tropical and subtropical regions, contributing to local food security and economies. Common fishing methods include gillnets, beach seines, cast nets, trammel nets, beam trawls, and traps, which are well-suited to their shallow-water habitats. Species such as Gerres filamentosus are commercially important in areas like the Indian coast, where they are captured using gillnets, cast nets, and drift nets in shallow waters. In the Western Atlantic, species like Diapterus auratus historically supported fisheries with reported annual landings ranging from 13,600 to 136,000 kg in during the late . Global catches of Gerreidae are not comprehensively reported in aggregate, but FAO data indicate significant regional production; for example, in 1998, gerreids totaled 4,370 metric tons in the Philippines, 1,730 metric tons in Kiribati, and 1,530 metric tons in Indonesia, highlighting their role in Southeast Asian fisheries. Recent FAO assessments (as of 2022) show stable global capture production, though species-specific data for Gerreidae in artisanal fisheries remain limited. These fish are mainly harvested for subsistence consumption in tropical communities, providing a high-protein food source, and are also used as bait for larger predatory species in both artisanal and recreational angling. In markets, mojarra are often processed as dried or salted products, particularly species like Gerres filamentosus, which fetch medium prices and are utilized for salting or fish sauce production. Despite their economic value, mojarra fisheries face challenges from in certain regions, leading to local population declines; for instance, Hong Kong's coastal waters show signs of since the 1970s, affecting Gerreidae stocks. Similarly, the has reported depletion of fish stocks, including gerreids, due to inadequate management. However, the family's fast growth rates, as observed in species like Gerres filamentosus reaching maturity within 1-2 years, support overall when fishing pressure is moderate.

Aquarium Trade and Captivity

Mojarra species within the Gerreidae family, such as the whipfin silver-biddy (Gerres filamentosus) and silver mojarra (Eucinostomus argenteus), are occasionally included in the marine and brackish ornamental fish trade due to their attractive silvery coloration and schooling behavior. These smaller species are suited for experienced aquarists maintaining marine setups, though they constitute a minor portion of the global marine ornamental market, which is dominated by families like Pomacentridae and Labridae. The majority of traded mojarra are wild-caught from coastal trawl fisheries in the , particularly off the shores of and , where they are collected as and acclimated for export. In captivity, G. filamentosus has demonstrated hardiness, surviving over a month in experimental tanks when provided with temperatures of 30–32°C, salinity of 30 ppt, and daily feedings of chopped or pieces. Larger species like Gerres cinereus require substantial display tanks exceeding 2,600 gallons to support their active swimming and . Captive maintenance demands a setup mimicking estuarine or coastal habitats, including sandy substrates for bottom-sifting feeding and robust to handle waste from omnivorous diets rich in , supplemented with or vegetable matter. E. argenteus tolerates brackish conditions (5–35 ppt salinity) and temperatures of 24–30°C, but requires stable parameters to prevent stress in schooling groups of at least six individuals. Breeding mojarra in remains rare, with no widespread commercial protocols established; challenges include inducing spawning through simulated tidal cycles and managing intra-school aggression during . While wild collection predominates, limited experimental rearing has been explored in regions like to reduce reliance on trawl .

Conservation Status

Most species in the Gerreidae family, commonly known as mojarras, are assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, indicating that they do not face significant immediate threats to their survival across their ranges. For instance, species such as Gerres cinereus, Gerres simillimus, and Eugerres lineatus are categorized as Least Concern based on available data showing stable populations and wide distributions in coastal and estuarine environments. However, some species remain unevaluated, such as Gerres microphthalmus, limiting comprehensive risk assessments for endemics potentially vulnerable to localized habitat degradation. Primary threats to mojarra populations include habitat loss from mangrove destruction, with global mangrove extent reduced by 20–35% over the past 50 years due to coastal development, , and . This degradation directly impacts juvenile nurseries in estuaries and , where many Gerreidae species recruit, leading to reduced recruitment success and altered community structures in affected areas. Additional pressures arise from in estuarine , which contaminates feeding grounds and affects , as well as climate change-induced alterations in and that disrupt migratory patterns and habitat suitability. Conservation efforts for mojarras primarily involve habitat protection within marine parks and reserves, such as the , where Indo-Pacific species like Gerres filamentosus benefit from zoning that restricts destructive activities and promotes ecosystem resilience. No Gerreidae species are listed under , reflecting their generally low volumes, though populations are monitored through FAO fisheries assessments that track catch trends and health in tropical regions. Overall, mojarra populations remain stable across much of their tropical and subtropical ranges, supported by their widespread distribution and adaptability. However, declines have been noted in overfished Atlantic stocks, particularly along the Brazilian coast, where affects coastal fish species.

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  76. https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/4455
  77. https://www.wwf.org.br/?70502/New-study-points-to-overfishing-in-fish-stocks-in-Brazil
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