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Nellis Air Force Base Complex
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Nellis Air Force Base Complex
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The Nellis Air Force Base Complex[1] (Nellis AFB complex,[2][3] NAFB Complex[1]) is the southern Nevada military region of federal facilities and lands, e.g., currently and formerly used for military and associated testing and training such as Atomic Energy Commission atmospheric nuclear detonations of the Cold War. The largest land area of the complex is the Nevada Test and Training Range, and numerous Formerly Used Defense Sites remain federal lands of the complex. Most of the facilities are controlled by the United States Air Force and/or the Bureau of Land Management, and many of the controlling units are based at Creech and Nellis Air Force Bases (e.g., 98th SRSS for NTTR's southern range). Initiated by a 1939 military reconnaissance for a bombing range,[4] federal acquisition began in 1940, and McCarran Field became the World War II training area's 1st of 3 Nevada World War II Army Airfields (cf. Indian Springs & Tonopah) and 10 auxiliary fields. The area's first military unit was initially headquartered in the Las Vegas Federal Building while the WWII Las Vegas Army Airfield buildings were constructed.

Geography

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The complex is primarily within the Great Basin physiographic section, and the White River portion east of the Great Basin Divide is in the Colorado River Watershed. Ecology is primarily Tonopah Basin surrounding elevated areas (Foothills/Uplands & High Valleys/Mid-Slope Woodland & Brushland) and 6 Tonopah Playas in Antelope Lake's valley, Cactus Flat, Groom Lake Valley, southern Railroad Valley, Sand Springs Valley, and the northwest NTTR corner.[5] The southern part of the complex in the Mojave Desert ecoregion is mostly Creosote Bush-Dominated Basins and Arid Footslopes (Jackass Flats is in the Amargosa Desert ecoregion.)[5] The complex includes 2 Salt Deserts—in the Coal Valley which has 3 sites of the "ADA activity area" (110E, 110F, & 110G) and in Dry Lake Valley (site 103 along the Burnt Springs Range).[3] The highest ecoregion is in the Tonopah Bombing Range (FUDS) which includes a Central Nevada Bald Mountains ecoregion[5] in the Kawich Range—the southern Bald Mountains are within the NTTR between the TTR & Wildhorse Management Area. The Logistic Supply Area of the ADA activity area is near the only Wetland ecoregion of the Tonopah Basin—in the Pahrangat Valley near both the Mojave ecotone and the northeast corner of the DNWR.[3]

Traversing the complex is the mid-1800s Utah & New Mexico Territories' dividing line (37th parallel north), and the area was used for the 1900–1921 silver rush (e.g., Tonopah Mining District[6] & Tonopah Manhattan Stage Route)[7] The region of mining claims was grouped into numbered geographic areas (e.g., Area 2, Area 5, Area 11, Area 12, Area 25, Area 27, Area 52) which are used for current names, e.g., "Area 3 Compound"[8] and "Groom Lake Field" ("Area 51" colloq.).[9]‹The template Self-published inline is being considered for merging.› [self-published source] The 1941-9 demarcation between the Tonopah & Las Vegas Bombing and Gunnery Ranges (Parallel 36°30′ north) is generally along the serpentine Creosote Bush ecotone between the Central Basin and Range ecoregion and "Mojavian flora".[5]

Airspace

[edit]

The Nellis managed airspace [3]: 4–13  associated with the complex is more than 12,700 sq mi (33,000 km2),[2] is the responsibility of the "US Air Force Virtual (USAFv), A3", and "is composed of the Desert MOA, with overlying Air Traffic Control Assigned Airspace (ATCAA), Reveille North and South MOA and ATCAA, [and] Restricted Areas":[10]

  • Desert MOA: "subdivided into Sally Corridor, Elgin, Caliente, and Coyote training areas."
  • Reveille Airspace:[11] North and South MOA
  • Restricted Areas (joint use airspace): R-4806 East/West, R-4809 and R-4807 A/B "subdivided as follows: Alamo A, B, & C, Areas 61, 62B & C, 63, 64A, B, C, & D, 65N, 65S, 71N, 71S, 74A, 74B, 74C, 75E, 75W, 76, 76A, Tolicha, Pahute A & B, ECE, ECW, ECS and Cactus EC."
  • "R-4808N and portions of R-4808S are non-joint use restricted areas."

The former Oil Burner/Olive Branch route ("OB-10-Hawthorne") for Strategic Air Command low-level bomber flights scored by the Hawthorne Bomb Plot extended from a "point west of Elko, Nevada, running southwest to Mina, Nevada" at flight level "FL130-140"[12] (the TTR sites for "SAC Targets 1 and 2"[13] are at Antelope Lake.)[8]

Wildlife areas

[edit]

The Nevada Division of Wildlife's Key Pittman Wildlife Management Area has a NOAA weather station, and Wilderness Areas include the "Worthington Mountains, Weepah Springs, Big Rocks, [and] Ash Springs Wildlife Area". Lands for federal protection of natural resources include:[3]

Military operations "when a tortoise is found in harms way" are suspended until it has been removed by an authorized biologist (e.g., dispatched by the Nellis AFB Natural Resources Manager), nesting surveys are conducted prior to military exercises for species protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and the BLM & USFS provide protections under the Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act.[3]

Public lands managed by the federal government in southern Nevada by size
Area Location (landforms, etc.) Facilities/sites Agency Years Size
Nevada Test and Training Range—shares ~1,276 sq mi (3,300 km2) of the Southern Range with the DNWR Northern Range:
Southern Range: southern Tikaboo Valley, Dogbone Dry Lake in Range 62,[15] 		Northern: Tolich Peak ECR, Tonopah ECR
Southern: Point Bravo ECR, Dogbone Lake G&BR,[15] Groom Lake Field in Area 51 		USAF 1942–present 4,531 sq mi (11,740 km2)
Nevada National Security Site
•includes Camp Desert Rock FUDS of 23,058 acres (9,331 ha)[16]   J09NV0276 		Frenchman Flat, Jackass Flats, Yucca Flat, Rainer & Pahute Mesas, 10 heliports, 2 "wild horse units ... Unit 252 [&] Unit 253",[1] Pahute Mesa Airstrip (Area 18), Desert Rock Airport (Area 20), "Yucca Lake UAV testing facility", "Yucca Mountain Underground Facility",[15] Big Explosives Experimental Facility (Area 4), Criticality Experiments Facility (Area 6), former Base Camp Mercury DOE 1951–present ~1,355 sq mi (3,510 km2)
Desert National Wildlife Refuge land east of the NTTR FUDS: Former NAFR Areas B-G,[17] e.g., Area F of 47,481.50 acres (19,215.08 ha)[18] USFWS 1936–present 1,248 sq mi (3,230 km2)
Tonopah Bombing Range (FUDS)*
J09NV1114
 Stone Cabin, Hot Creek, Railroad, Tikaboo, and Sand Springs valleys ("60 miles east of Tonopah") USFWS National Wildlife Refuge of ~22.25 sq mi (57.6 km2) at the Kawich Range, Rachel community (Sand Springs Valley), Area 51 viewing areas (Tonopah Uplands along Tikaboo Valley) BLM[19] 1942–19xx
(FUDS: 1999) 		~311,040 acres (125,870 ha)[20]
Tonopah Rifle Range
J09NV0970

Tonopah Army Airfield Practice Bombing Ranges* J09NV1112[21]
"Sand Spring [sic]-Tikaboo Valleys"[22]
1941-tbd
Area A
J09NV1103
 north and northeast of NTTR former ranges 46-56 "returned to public domain" by 1941 EO9019 and 1957 EO10355 BLM ~1,107 sq mi (2,870 km2)[23]
Tonopah Test Range "Cactus and Gold Flats, Kawich Valley, Goldfield Hills, and the Stonewall Mountains",[1] Cactus Flat, Antelope Lake Valley Tonopah Test Range Airport (Cactus Flat), Operations Control Center (Area 3), Area 10 airfield/strip, Mellan Airstrip (37°41′16″N 116°37′50″W), DOE 1957–present ~280 sq mi (730 km2)[1]
Humboldt National Forest "Total Acreage" includes "217,086" acres not federally-owned[24] 2,618,165 acres (1,059,534 ha)[24]
Wildhorse Management Area bordered on 3 sides by the NTTR Northern Range and on the north, Tonopah Bombing Range (FUDS) BLM[1]
Nellis Air Force Base Las Vegas Valley (northeast corner) adjacent to North Las Vegas Area I: Airport, "Nellis Control", Suter Hall
Area II: former Lake Mead Base
J09NV0442

Area III: Armory, family housing 		USAF 1941-6, 1947–present 17.7 sq mi (46 km2)
Nellis Small Arms Range Complex Las Vegas Valley & Mojave Arid Footslopes of Sheep Mountain, "north of the main base of Nellis AFB" and adjacent to "World War II Gunnery Range (FUDS)" on west and north active area: 6,957 acres (2,815 ha)
inactive (MRA MU732): 6.2 sq mi (16 km2) 		USAF
tbd 		1941–present
1941-65[2] 		17.1 sq mi (44 km2)
Tonopah Air Force Base
J09NV0969
 BLM 1942–195x 7,228.23 acres (2,925.16 ha)[19]
Creech Air Force Base adjacent to Indian Springs, Nevada and FUDS J09NV0399 (Indian Springs AFAF land designated a FUDS by 2002)[25] Joint Unmanned Aerial Systems Center of Excellence
UAV-Logistic and Training Facility 		USAF 1942-5, 1948–present 2,300 acres (930 ha)[18]
Patriot "Radar/Communications activity area" ("ADA activity area"), part of eastern DNWR Coal V (sites 110E*, F*, G), Delamar V (102, 108), Dry Lake V (103), Pahranagat V (LSA), Sand Springs V (112C, E, F, G, H, I), Six Mile Flat (109), Logistics Support Area (LSA) at Alamo Airfield & 13 sites each 500 ft × 500 ft (150 m × 150 m)

*in "wild horse Herd Management Areas (HMA)[3] 		BLM[3]: 1–1  2008–present 74.1 acres (30.0 ha)[3]+
Las Vegas Air Force Station
J09NV0445

Lathrop Wells radar site
Red Mountain VORTAC site
FAA radar facility (former Tonopah AFS)
Former GATR & Soviet radar site 		Portion is leased to Nellis AFB[citation needed]
west of Indian Springs
near Boulder City, Nevada
38°03′06″N 117°13′32″W / 38.05167°N 117.22556°W / 38.05167; -117.22556 in Esmeralda Co.
38°08′37″N 117°11′57″W / 38.14361°N 117.19917°W / 38.14361; -117.19917 "near the former" TAFS 		Former Phoenix ADS radar site
Former Phoenix ADS radar site
Former Phoenix ADS radar site
2 radar platforms at former Reno ADS site
Former Reno ADS site 		FAA
FAA
USAF 		1956-69


1956-70
Regional Training Complex (Silver Flag Alpha facility) ~15 miles south of Indian Springs on US95[26] 12 small arms ranges, MOUT village, bare base tent city, maneuver area
Tonopah (TPH) VORTAC 38°01′50.321″N 117°02′00.627″W / 38.03064472°N 117.03350750°W / 38.03064472; -117.03350750[27] near Nye County's Tonopah Airport (38°03′37″N 117°05′12″W / 38.06028°N 117.08667°W / 38.06028; -117.08667) FAA
Hawthorne Bomb Plot Babbitt, Nevada (Mineral County) former "USAF Radar Station" for RBS USAF
US Navy 		1962–1985
1993
Delamar Dry Lake Test Annex
J09NV0023
Delamar Valley
Sunrise Mountain Machine Gun Range  
J09NV0639
"North Las Vegas Station" near Nellis AFB
"Key Pittman WMA station" 		4.19 in (106 mm) average precipcipitation/year
7.94 in (202 mm) " 		Climatology monitoring sites (weather stations)[3]: 3–1  NOAA 1951–present
1964–present

History

[edit]

The original 1940 area named Tonopah Bombing Range was split during WWII and 1 of the 2 subdivisions was named Tonopah Bombing and Gunnery Range in 1947. In 1999 a different area was named a FUDS with the original name--"Tonopah Bombing Range" (J09NV1114)—and the different FUDS J09NV1112 was given a new name --"Tonopah Army Airfield Practice Bombing Ranges"—by 1999.[21]

Notes

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Nellis Air Force Base Complex

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The Complex is an expansive U.S. military region in southern , encompassing , , the (NTTR), and related facilities under the , primarily dedicated to advanced combat training, tactics development, and testing for air, , and cyber operations. Spanning over 2.9 million acres of land and 15,000 square miles of , it represents the largest contiguous peacetime military training area in the , enabling realistic multi-domain exercises for , and remotely piloted . Headquartered at —located about eight miles northeast of and covering approximately 16,400 acres (as of 2025)—the complex hosts the U.S. Warfare Center (USAFWC), which oversees the and ensures combat-ready forces through innovative leadership in high-end warfighting. With approximately 16,000 military and civilian personnel (as of FY 2023), including pilots and support staff, it supports key programs like Red Flag exercises and the Thunderbirds aerial demonstration squadron, while contributing significantly to the local economy through ongoing expansions and operations. Established from a 1929 civilian airfield and evolving through World War II-era expansions, the complex has adapted to modern threats, including early 2000s initiatives in weapons training.

Overview

Definition and Components

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex is a unified military region in southern that encompasses (USAF)-controlled lands, areas managed by the (BLM), and various federal facilities, spanning over 5,000 square miles of land and approximately 12,700 square miles of airspace dedicated to integrated training, testing, and operational activities. This expansive complex serves as a critical hub for advanced air combat training and evaluation, combining diverse terrain and to support multidimensional military exercises. Its primary components include , the core installation located northeast of and serving as the headquarters for operational oversight; , a specialized hub for remotely piloted aircraft operations; and the (NTTR), which covers 4,531 square miles (2.9 million acres) and provides dedicated space for live-fire testing, weapons evaluation, and large-scale simulations. The complex also integrates with the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS), a DOE-managed area of approximately 1,355 square miles adjacent to the NTTR, which supports joint military purposes including testing and radiological response operations. Administrative oversight of the Nellis Air Force Base Complex falls under the (ACC), which organizes and equips combat forces through the USAF Warfare Center at Nellis AFB, while coordination with the Department of Energy (DOE) ensures seamless integration of NNSS resources for shared missions.

Strategic Importance

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex serves as the "Home of the Fighter Pilot" and headquarters for the Warfare Center, which reports directly to and enables advanced combat simulations in integrated air, ground, and space environments across vast restricted areas. This central role positions Nellis as a cornerstone of U.S. readiness, focusing on high-end training that replicates real-world threats to enhance warfighter proficiency. A key asset is the , which encompasses the largest contiguous peacetime training airspace in the free world, exceeding 12,000 square miles, allowing for realistic joint exercises involving all U.S. branches and international allies. These capabilities support multinational operations, such as those under the 414th Training Squadron, fostering in complex scenarios. The complex contributes significantly to U.S. air superiority through hosting Red Flag exercises, weapons system evaluations by the 53rd , and electronic warfare training, all of which sharpen tactics against peer adversaries. Economically, it sustains over 15,900 and civilian personnel while generating approximately $4.5 billion in annual activity for as of fiscal year 2023, supporting more than 35,000 total jobs statewide. In 2025, expansions under priorities include the activation of an Experimental Operations Unit at Nellis for integrating collaborative combat aircraft drones with manned fighters.

Geography

Location and Terrain

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex is situated in southern , spanning , Lincoln, and Nye counties, with its central area approximately at 37°32′N 116°12′W between Mountain and the Belted Range. This expansive military installation encompasses northeast of North , near Indian Springs, and the (NTTR) to the north, providing a vast controlled environment for air operations. The complex's location in the transition zone between urban proximity to and remote desert expanses supports its role as a premier testing and training facility while integrating with surrounding federal lands managed by the (BLM). The terrain of the complex blends elements of the ecoregion in the north and the ecoregion in the south, characterized by arid basins, rugged mountain ranges such as the Desert Mountains and Kawich Mountains, expansive valleys, and beds known as playas. Elevations range from about 2,000 feet in the southern lowlands near to over 7,000 feet in the northern mountainous areas, creating diverse topographic features including alluvial fans and isolated peaks that challenge aircraft maneuvers and ground operations. These landforms, including the prominent Quartzite Mountain and Belted Range, contribute to a realistic simulation while limiting accessibility and influencing mission planning. The region experiences a hot desert climate with extreme temperature variations, where summer highs can reach up to 120°F in the southern portions and winter lows drop to freezing levels, particularly in higher elevations. Annual rainfall is minimal, averaging around 4 inches, primarily from sporadic high-intensity storms that briefly support ephemeral water features but otherwise exacerbate aridity. These climatic conditions impact military operations by necessitating heat-resistant equipment and dust mitigation strategies, while also shaping the sparse ecological adaptations in the area. The total land area under U.S. Air Force and BLM control exceeds 3.1 million acres, with approximately 5,000 square miles designated as restricted for training activities.

Airspace Structure

The airspace overlying the Nellis Air Force Base Complex encompasses a vast expanse of special use airspace designated for military training and testing, totaling approximately 12,000 square miles. This includes several Military Operations Areas (MOAs) such as the Desert MOA, which supports air-to-air training activities, and the Reveille MOA (divided into North and South sectors), facilitating diverse tactical maneuvers. Complementing these are Restricted Areas (R-series), including R-4806 (with sub-areas E and W for live-fire and munitions testing), R-4807 (A and B for electronic combat), R-4808 (North and South overlying the Nevada Test Site), and R-4809, all enforced to protect non-participating aircraft from hazardous operations. Management of this airspace falls under the 99th Range Squadron, which provides real-time oversight through an integrated network of systems, instrumentation tracks, and remote tracking stations to monitor positions and ensure safe deconfliction. The squadron employs advanced tools like the Television Ordnance Scoring System (TOSS), Kineto Tracking Mounts, and Time Space Position Information (TSPI) for precise data collection during exercises, while threat simulators replicate surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), anti-aircraft artillery (AAA), and acquisition s to create realistic combat scenarios. To mitigate conflicts with civilian aviation, the 99th Range Squadron coordinates closely with the (FAA), which delegates authority over portions of the and issues Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs) for schedules, enabling seamless integration within the . Vertically, the extends from the surface ( above ground level in many sectors) up to unlimited altitudes in key restricted areas like R-4806W, accommodating operations from low-level tactical flights to high-altitude intercepts exceeding 80,000 feet, which supports training in space-adjacent environments. MOAs such as and typically span from AGL to Flight Level 180 (18,000 feet MSL), with overlying Air Traffic Control Assigned Airspace (ATCAA) extending higher for supersonic and advanced maneuvers. Key features of the airspace include synthetic training ranges equipped for electronic combat, where instrumentation simulates dense threat environments to enhance pilot proficiency in contested scenarios. As of 2025, enhancements have introduced dedicated corridors for unmanned aerial systems (UAS), aligning with broader FAA initiatives for beyond-visual-line-of-sight operations and integrating AI-driven drones into training exercises at Nellis, thereby expanding the complex's capacity for autonomous systems testing.

Environmental Features

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex encompasses diverse ecoregions primarily within the , characterized by arid scrub ecosystems dominated by creosote bush () and other drought-tolerant vegetation, with transitional elements from the in its northern extents. Typical Mojave flora includes iconic species such as Joshua trees (), various cacti like cholla ( spp.), and yuccas, which thrive in the sandy and rocky soils of basins and foothills. In the interface zones with the , sagebrush () becomes more prevalent, supporting a mix of plant communities adapted to cooler, higher-elevation conditions. Fauna in these areas features species like the Mojave desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), a federally threatened reptile that inhabits burrows in the desert scrub, alongside smaller mammals, reptiles, and birds adapted to sparse vegetation and extreme temperatures. Seasonal environmental phenomena, including flash floods from intense summer thunderstorms and dust storms during high winds, shape the landscape and influence dynamics across the complex. Protected areas within and adjacent to the complex play a crucial role in conserving amid military operations. The Key Pittman Wildlife Management Area, located in the northeastern portion of the (NTTR), serves as vital habitat for migratory birds, including waterfowl, shorebirds, and songbirds that utilize its marshes, woodlands, and open waters during seasonal migrations. Adjoining the complex to the north and east, the Desert National Wildlife Refuge is partially co-managed with and provides essential range for the (Ovis canadensis nelsoni), Nevada's state mammal and a species of conservation concern, supporting one of the largest populations in the state through protected canyons and mountain habitats. Hydrologically, the complex lacks permanent surface water bodies, relying instead on ephemeral streams and washes that flow only during rare precipitation events, channeling runoff from surrounding mountains into alluvial fans and basins. These intermittent waterways contribute to soil erosion and sediment transport but pose risks of flash flooding in low-lying areas. Underlying groundwater aquifers, part of the broader Las Vegas Valley system, supply limited water resources but have experienced overdraft and potential contamination from historical military activities, including testing and infrastructure development, necessitating careful management to prevent impacts on regional water quality. As of 2025, environmental monitoring efforts at the complex emphasize assessing climate change impacts, particularly increased and temperature shifts that exacerbate drought stress on ecosystems. The U.S. Air Force's Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan (INRMP) for Nellis AFB, Creech AFB, and the NTTR outlines ongoing surveys for species like the and vegetation health, integrating data on variability and to adapt conservation strategies amid projections of heightened in the Mojave region. These initiatives align with broader watershed vulnerability assessments, which highlight rising evaporation rates and reduced as key concerns for sustaining habitats.

History

Pre-World War II Origins

In the late , as tensions in escalated, the U.S. Army Air Corps initiated an expansion program that included scouting remote locations for advanced bombing and gunnery training ranges. Maj. Gen. , as chief of the Air Corps, played a key role in prioritizing isolated sites to minimize risks to civilians and infrastructure while enabling realistic practice with live ordnance. In 1939, reconnaissance flights over the deserts identified the area north and west of as ideal due to its vast open terrain, clear weather, and distance from population centers. By 1940, this groundwork led to federal land acquisitions, with President issuing 8578 on October 29, establishing the Las Vegas Bombing and Gunnery Range. The government purchased over 3.5 million acres primarily from local ranchers through condemnation proceedings that began in August 1941, creating one of the largest military reservations in the United States at the time. Administrative operations were initially based in , supporting the range's development for gunnery practice and aerial maneuvers. Basic facilities soon followed, including emergency landing strips at sites like Groom Lake and Pahute Mesa, along with auxiliary airstrips on dry lake beds such as and . These early constructions provided essential infrastructure for Air Corps units to conduct safe, large-scale exercises in relative isolation. Under Arnold's influence, the site's selection emphasized strategic remoteness, ensuring it could accommodate the growing demands of prewar air training without interference. This foundational phase positioned the range as a critical asset, with further mobilization occurring after the U.S. entry into .

World War II and Postwar Expansion

The Las Vegas Army Air Field (LVAAF) was activated on December 20, 1941, just weeks after the Pearl Harbor attack, as the U.S. Army Air Forces' inaugural flexible gunnery school to train aerial gunners for combat operations. Construction had begun earlier that year on the site of the former Las Vegas Airport, incorporating repurposed Work Progress Administration barracks and Civilian Conservation Corps structures to rapidly build essential facilities, including three concrete runways measuring up to 6,000 feet long, aircraft hangars, and support buildings capable of accommodating heavy bombers. Initial training utilized B-10 bombers for familiarization before transitioning to B-17 Flying Fortresses in early 1942, with gunners practicing on towed targets over the newly established 3,000-square-mile Las Vegas Bombing and Gunnery Range to directly support LVAAF operations. This range featured simulated ground targets and impact areas to replicate European theater conditions. To accommodate the surge in wartime training demands, Indian Springs Auxiliary Army Airfield was constructed in early 1942 approximately 40 miles southwest of LVAAF, serving as a sub-base for additional gunnery practice, emergency diversions, and . The facility began with graded dirt runways and tented accommodations but quickly evolved into a more permanent site with paved surfaces and hangars by mid-1943, hosting B-17 and T-6 Texan aircraft to alleviate overcrowding at the main field. By 1943, LVAAF and its auxiliaries were training thousands of gunners annually, contributing significantly to the Allied air campaign through rigorous live-fire exercises over designated bombing targets on the range. Following demobilization in 1945, LVAAF entered a standby status with reduced operations, as surplus aircraft were stored and much of the personnel returned to civilian life. Postwar reactivation began in 1947 amid tensions, with the base repurposed for reserve and units; that year, the Tonopah Bombing Range was subdivided to create the distinct Tonopah Bombing and Gunnery Range, expanding available training airspace while the southern portion remained tied to operations. In January 1948, the installation was redesignated Las Vegas Air Force Base under , focusing on advanced fighter pilot instruction with early jet aircraft. Infrastructure upgrades followed, including runway extensions to 10,000 feet and new hangars to support F-80 Shooting Stars, solidifying its role in postwar air combat readiness. On April 30, 1950, it was renamed in honor of 1st Lt. William Harrell Nellis, a native and P-47 Thunderbolt pilot over in 1944 during his 70th combat mission. This transition marked the base's shift toward tactical fighter training, eventually leading to its assignment to in 1958.

Cold War Developments

During the 1950s, the Nellis Air Force Base Complex underwent significant integration with the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to support nuclear weapons development amid escalating tensions. On December 18, 1950, President designated a 680-square-mile portion of the existing Las Vegas Bombing and Gunnery Range—adjacent to the newly renamed —as the Nevada Proving Ground, managed by the AEC for continental nuclear testing. This establishment facilitated tactical nuclear exercises, with providing logistical support, including aircraft tracking and communications from facilities like Building 926, while the AEC coordinated scientific and military operations. The inaugural Ranger series of five atmospheric tests in and February 1951 marked the site's operational debut, blending AEC oversight with Air Force execution to evaluate weapon effects and delivery systems. From the 1960s through the 1980s, the , formerly the , served as a core component of the complex, hosting 928 nuclear detonations between 1951 and 1992 to refine U.S. strategic capabilities against Soviet threats. Of these, 100 were atmospheric tests conducted primarily at and until 1962, followed by 828 underground tests that minimized fallout while assessing warhead designs and survivability. complemented these efforts by testing advanced aircraft, including the F-4 Phantom as the primary fighter-bomber from the 1960s to 1970s and the F-111 Aardvark, which the 474th Tactical Fighter Wing operated from 1968 to 1969 for supersonic nuclear delivery and conventional strike evaluations. Key events underscored the complex's pivotal role in Cold War deterrence. In 1962, as part of —the largest U.S. nuclear test series—five low-yield atmospheric detonations (Little Feller I, John, Small Boy, Little Feller II, and Johnnie Boy) occurred at the from July 7 to 17, simulating tactical battlefield use and marking the final such tests before the Partial Test Ban Treaty. Later, the inaugural Red Flag exercise launched on November 29, 1975, at Nellis, simulating realistic combat scenarios with over 30 aircraft to enhance pilot survival rates, drawing from lessons and evolving into a cornerstone of advanced tactics training. Infrastructure expansion across the complex bolstered these missions, with additions of radar sites for threat simulation and tracking, such as Soviet Threat Simulators integrated into Air Defense Command networks. Underground bunkers emerged at the NNSS for secure observation and storage during tests, while live-fire ranges proliferated post-World War II, including the 60- and 70-Series areas for bombing and gunnery with both inert and live ordnance, spanning millions of acres to support tactical nuclear and conventional exercises. These developments, including prefabricated hangars and enclosed shelters at Nellis, enabled multidimensional battle-space operations essential to U.S. air superiority.

Post-Cold War Evolution

Following the end of the , the Nellis Air Force Base Complex underwent significant adaptations in the , marked by the cessation of and a pivot toward emerging conventional technologies. In 1992, a moratorium on nuclear explosive testing was imposed at the , part of the (NTTR), effectively ending over four decades of underground and atmospheric tests that had defined much of the range's role. Concurrently, (BRAC) processes facilitated asset transfers to enhance operational efficiency, including the activation of (UAV) capabilities at Indian Springs Auxiliary Field. On July 29, 1995, the activated the 11th Reconnaissance Squadron at Indian Springs to operate the RQ-1 Predator UAV, establishing it as a key hub for reconnaissance and laying the groundwork for remote piloted aircraft integration within the complex; the field was redesignated in 2005 to honor General Wilbur L. Creech, the former commander of . In the 2000s, the complex shifted emphasis to precision-guided munitions and joint operations, reflecting lessons from conflicts like the 1991 and subsequent global engagements. This era saw intensified training for precision strikes through exercises at Nellis, emphasizing advanced targeting and integration of smart weapons systems. efforts also accelerated, with the 2005 BRAC realignment designating several sites within the complex as Formerly Used Defense Sites (FUDS) for cleanup of (UXO) and contaminants from and activities, including aerial gunnery ranges and bombing sites. The 2010s through 2025 brought further modernization, including the integration of fifth-generation aircraft and expansion into cyber domains amid growing urbanization pressures around the complex. Nellis AFB was selected for the F-35 Lightning II beddown, with 36 aircraft stationed between 2012 and 2020 to support advanced tactics development and weapons school training. Cyber warfare training was incorporated into core programs, such as at the U.S. Weapons School, where tacticians learn to exploit air, space, and cyber capabilities in joint scenarios. Key infrastructural changes included 2014 boundary adjustments to the NTTR under the Air Test and Training Range Enhancement Plan, optimizing airspace for realistic threat replication while addressing constraints. Ongoing UXO remediation continues across the NTTR, with protocols for inspection and safe handling during operations to mitigate risks from legacy munitions. In 2025, the released a draft Programmatic for the Nellis Master Plan, evaluating options to accommodate growth in training and testing amid regional expansion.

Facilities and Infrastructure

Nellis Air Force Base

serves as the central hub of the Nellis Air Force Base Complex, situated approximately 8 miles northeast of , , and encompassing 16,439 acres of land. The installation features two primary concrete runways—measuring 10,120 feet and 10,051 feet in length—designed to accommodate a wide array of , including F-16 Fighting Falcons, F-35 Lightning IIs, and B-1 Lancer bombers. These runways support high-volume operations critical to the base's role in advanced air combat training and testing. The base's infrastructure includes over 50 flight simulators, more than 200 classrooms and lecture halls, and 10 designated tactical training sites, enabling immersive preparation for complex aerial scenarios. Essential support facilities encompass the Military Medical Center, operated by the 99th Medical Group, which provides comprehensive healthcare services to base personnel and their families. Additionally, Nellis offers on-base family housing options, such as Nellis Terrace, capable of accommodating over 5,000 military members and their dependents through a mix of single-story ranch-style homes and community amenities. Support features at Nellis include fuel storage and dispensing systems, along with munitions handling and storage facilities, ensuring logistical readiness for flight operations and exercises. The base also houses dedicated maintenance hangars for the U.S. Air Force Air Demonstration Squadron, known as the Thunderbirds, facilitating aircraft upkeep and preparation for aerial displays. These elements integrate seamlessly with the adjacent to provide expansive training environments. As of 2025, the U.S. Advanced Maintenance and Munitions Operations (AMMOS) at Nellis provides graduate-level instruction in tactical and munitions operations to 40 students annually.

Creech Air Force Base

is situated one mile northwest of , approximately 35 miles northwest of and about 50 miles from , encompassing roughly 2,300 acres of desert terrain within the broader Nellis Air Force Base Complex. This location positions it as a key auxiliary facility, originally established in 1942 as an auxiliary landing field with three graded-earth strips for training purposes. The base's infrastructure is tailored for remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) operations, featuring advanced ground control stations, communication links such as the Predator Primary Satellite Link, and dedicated launch and recovery facilities for unmanned systems. These elements enable remote split operations, where aircraft are launched and recovered at forward deployed sites while occur from the continental via beyond-line-of-sight capabilities. Unlike traditional airbases, Creech lacks extensive s optimized for manned aircraft, instead prioritizing maintenance hangars, sensor-equipped systems, and support buildings for RPA sustainment, with its primary measuring 9,002 by 150 feet primarily supporting unmanned vehicle activities. As a central hub within the Nellis Complex, Creech serves as the main operating base for the and 432nd Air Expeditionary Wing, focusing on persistent , , (ISR), and precision strike missions using platforms like the MQ-9 Reaper and RQ-170 Sentinel. The MQ-9 Reaper, an armed multi-mission RPA, conducts 24-hour operations crewed by a pilot and sensor operator, supporting dynamic targeting and ISR in environments worldwide. Similarly, the RQ-170 Sentinel provides low-observable to meet combatant commander needs for target location and . These capabilities sustain global operations, including deployments to support U.S. Central Command, European Command, Africa Command, and Command. Security at Creech is managed by the 432nd Squadron, which delivers integrated defense through measures, including high-fence perimeter barriers, police services, and electronic systems security to protect sensitive RPA operations and personnel. These features, such as reinforced fencing and countermeasures against unauthorized access, ensure the safeguarding of classified technologies and maintain operational integrity amid high-tempo missions.

Nevada Test and Training Range

The (NTTR) encompasses approximately 4,531 square miles (2.9 million acres) of restricted land in southern , serving as a critical testing and training for the U.S. . This vast area supports a diverse array of over 1,200 fixed and mobile targets, including simulated mock airfields with parked aircraft, maintenance shelters, and refueling equipment, as well as convoys, tanks, sites, and bunkered defensive positions designed to replicate real-world environments. The range's scale enables multidimensional operations, integrating air, ground, and electronic warfare scenarios to evaluate weapons systems and tactics under realistic conditions. Key infrastructure includes extensive instrumentation sites equipped with radars, high-speed cameras, and telemetry systems to capture data on munitions performance and aircraft maneuvers, particularly at electronic combat ranges such as Tolicha Peak and Point Bravo. Live-fire impact areas, concentrated in the southern portions like Range 63C, accommodate small arms, precision-guided munitions, and larger ordnance deliveries, while northern sectors feature controlled zones for advanced simulations. Legacy elements from the nuclear testing era persist, including underground tunnels and shafts originally constructed for subcritical and containment experiments at the former , which overlaps with the NTTR and now supports non-nuclear high-hazard evaluations. The NTTR is managed by the 99th Range Wing, headquartered at , which oversees nine directorates and one squadron to maintain safety, environmental compliance, and operational readiness across the range. A notable sub-area is Pahute Mesa, a restricted northern plateau jointly administered with the Department of Energy under interagency agreements, designated for high-hazard testing activities such as subcritical experiments due to its remote location and geological features like volcanic tuff formations. As of 2025, infrastructure enhancements, including expanded water treatment and electronic systems at sites like Tolicha Peak, support operational readiness across the range.

Units and Commands

Headquarters Organizations

The U.S. Air Force Warfare Center (USAFWC) is the principal headquarters organization at the Nellis Air Force Base Complex, directing advanced training, tactics development, and operational testing to prepare forces for integrated combat across air, space, and domains. Headquartered at , the USAFWC reports directly to and is commanded by David C. Epperson, overseeing approximately 13,000 , guard, reserve, civilian, and contractor personnel distributed across five wings and two named units. Its structure emphasizes warfighter-centric innovation, including support offices for inspection, legal, safety, and , to enable joint all-domain operations. The , subordinate to the USAFWC, specializes in fighter and instruction through realistic, multi-domain scenarios that foster high-end warfighting proficiency and tactical leadership. Comprising the Weapons School—which trains approximately 150 graduates every six months across 21 squadrons—the 57th Maintenance Group, the 57th Operations Group with 10 squadrons at five locations, the USAF Aerial Demonstration Squadron (Thunderbirds) for precision F-16 demonstrations, and the USAF Advanced Maintenance and Munitions Operations School, the wing ensures combat forces achieve dominance in complex environments. The 99th Air Base Wing, also under the USAFWC, delivers comprehensive base support services such as , security, and infrastructure maintenance for and the 2.9 million-acre , sustaining over 10,000 personnel from five wings and 52 tenant units. Its key elements include the 99th Mission Support Group with squadrons for , communications, contracting, , force support, and ; the 99th Medical Group providing a 50-bed treatment facility with 192,400 annual patient encounters and deployment readiness training; and the 99th Comptroller Squadron managing budgets for Nellis, , and the range. As of 2025, the complex's structure incorporates elements for enhanced joint domain operations, notably via the 328th Weapons Squadron at Nellis, which produces space superiority weapons officers and warfighter instructors to integrate space tactics into multi-domain under Space Training and Readiness Command.

Operational and Support Units

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex hosts several key operational and support units that contribute to its mission of advanced training, testing, and combat readiness. The 355th Wing Detachment 1, supporting the 563rd Group, maintains an operating location at Nellis AFB following the inactivation of the 58th Squadron in June 2025, focusing on pararescue operations and missions using HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters. This unit provides critical personnel recovery capabilities, including deployment of teams for high-risk environments, supporting joint and coalition forces across the complex's vast training ranges. The 800th RED HORSE Group, activated at Nellis AFB in June 2020, specializes in heavy engineering and rapid deployment to enable expeditionary airfield and support in austere locations. Comprising engineer squadrons equipped for tasks such as repair, base development, and operations, the group enhances the complex's ability to sustain large-scale exercises and deployments under . Within the Nevada Test and Training Range (NTTR), the 99th Range Support Squadron manages range safety, instrumentation, and operational control across the 2.9 million-acre area. This squadron oversees tracking, systems, and safety protocols for live-fire and aerial maneuvers, ensuring secure execution of tests and training while integrating with the NTTR's directorates for operations and . As of 2025, cyber units under the 53rd , including the 53rd Computer Systems Squadron, conduct electronic warfare testing and cyber operations from a dedicated facility at Nellis AFB, supporting the integration of cyber capabilities into scenarios. In June 2025, the 53rd activated the Experimental Operations Unit at Nellis to advance Collaborative Combat Aircraft integration in multi-domain testing. The complex overall sustains approximately 12,000 active-duty personnel across these and other tenant units, bolstering its role in multi-domain warfare development.

Operations and Missions

Training Programs

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex serves as a premier venue for advanced air training, emphasizing structured programs that simulate realistic scenarios to enhance pilot proficiency and joint operations. Central to these efforts is the Red Flag exercise series, a two-week advanced aerial training event conducted multiple times annually by the 414th Training Squadron. These exercises involve over 100 aircraft from U.S. and allied forces, replicating high-threat environments through large-force employment tactics that include offensive and defensive counter-air missions, as well as suppression of enemy air defenses. Participants engage in intensive sorties to build experience in complex, multi-domain operations, to foster decision-making under pressure. Complementing Red Flag, the Green Flag-West exercises focus on joint integration, led by the 549th Combat Training Squadron in coordination with and elements. Held primarily at the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, , these multi-week events train aircrews to deliver precise strikes in support of ground forces, incorporating forward air controllers and coalition partners. Each annual cycle emphasizes air-land in contested environments. Simulator-based programs at Nellis further refine tactics through , utilizing advanced aggressor squadrons to mimic near-peer adversaries. The employs a fleet of 30 F-16C/M to deliver threat-representative opposition, enabling pilots to practice beyond-visual-range engagements and electronic warfare tactics in controlled settings. These programs integrate high-fidelity simulators for cost-effective repetition of scenarios, enhancing unit readiness without live-fly risks. In 2024, the 13th Field Training Detachment introduced ground trainers for F-35 maintenance, replicating emergency procedures and allowing crews to practice in simulated conditions to improve response times and safety protocols. In 2025, Nellis introduced initiatives tailored to fifth-generation aircraft, including specialized F-35 tactics courses within the U.S. Weapons School curriculum. These courses emphasize stealth integration and , drawing on the Joint Simulation Environment (JSE) for hyper-realistic virtual battlespace that supports up to eight pilots simultaneously in F-35 scenarios.

Testing and Evaluation Activities

The 53rd Wing, based at , serves as the primary unit for operational test and evaluation activities within the Nellis Air Force Base Complex, focusing on validating weapons systems, tactics, and capabilities for the U.S. . This includes rigorous assessments of performance, munitions effectiveness, and integrated systems under realistic combat conditions, leveraging the expansive (NTTR) for live-fire evaluations. A key focus of the 53rd Wing is the testing of the F-35 Lightning II, conducted by squadrons such as the 59th Test and Evaluation Squadron, which evaluates rapid regeneration procedures, survivability enhancements, and combat operations including simultaneous refueling and munitions loading. These tests utilize NTTR impact areas for live weapons drops to assess integration and performance in dynamic environments. Munitions testing forms a core component, with units like the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron employing A-10 Thunderbolt IIs to validate precision-guided weapons, such as Maverick missiles and cluster bomb units, through live drops over designated NTTR zones. Similarly, the 28th Test and Evaluation Squadron has successfully tested advanced penetrator bombs like the BLU-136, ensuring operational reliability in high-threat scenarios. Avionics evaluation is integral to these efforts, particularly for the F-35's advanced integrated systems, which enable precise target identification, electronic warfare integration, and jamming capabilities during flight tests at Nellis. The 53rd Wing's work extends to upgrades across platforms, optimizing and data processing for enhanced mission effectiveness. Electronic warfare assessments are conducted in dedicated Military Operations Areas (MOAs) within the NTTR, where the tests jamming and countermeasures systems, such as the Integrated Viper Electronic Warfare Suite on F-16s, to counter radar threats and improve aircraft survivability. Additional evaluations include pod-based electronic attack capabilities, like the Angry Kitten pod on MQ-9 Reapers, which provide elevated jamming against ground and airborne targets. In 2025, the 53rd Wing supports emerging hypersonic and next-generation testing programs, including evaluations of the Army's during exercises at Nellis, aimed at advancing integration. These efforts involve coordination with the Department of at the Nevada National Security Site (NNSS) for directed energy and hypersonic propulsion trials, focusing on high-speed validation and countermeasures development. Safety protocols underpin all testing, with the 53rd Wing implementing real-time scoring systems, monitoring, and debris hazard management to mitigate risks across the NTTR. These measures ensure safe execution of live-fire activities while maintaining environmental compliance in impact areas.

Current Roles and Exercises

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex supports global operations by providing real-time intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) feeds from to U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM), enabling remotely piloted aircraft missions in campaigns like . The U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds, headquartered at Nellis, conduct public aerial demonstrations to recruit and inspire, with their 2025 season featuring performances at events such as the in and the Pacific Air Show in . Joint exercises at the complex foster international collaboration, including Red Flag, which in 2025 celebrates its 50th anniversary since 1975 and involves participants from over 29 countries, such as NATO allies, to simulate high-stakes multi-domain combat scenarios. Emerging roles address 2025 threats from peer adversaries, with Nellis activating experimental squadrons to test AI-enabled combat drones like the YFQ-42A and YFQ-44A for counter-unmanned aerial system (UAS) defense and manned-unmanned teaming in contested environments. The Nevada Test and Training Range (NTTR) integrates space domain awareness through programs like Air Space Total Awareness for Rapid Tactical Execution (ASTARTE), linking space assets to air and ground operations for comprehensive threat detection. In 2025, the complex highlights adaptations to contested logistics via the Advanced Maintenance and Munitions Operations School (AMMOS) at Nellis, which trains 40 officers and senior non-commissioned officers annually in Agile Combat Employment principles to sustain airpower against strategies in the . AMMOS incorporates real-time simulations and exercises like Bamboo Eagle to practice dispersal and reconstitution of forces, preparing for peer-level conflicts.

Environmental and Cultural Management

Wildlife Conservation Efforts

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex implements comprehensive protection measures for the Mojave desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), a species federally listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act since 1990. The base's Natural Resources Program conducts annual surveys across Nellis AFB and the Nevada Test and Training Range to monitor populations; as of 2016, low-density habitats comprised 88% of surveyed areas and moderate-to-high densities in 12%. Under the 2023 Programmatic Biological Opinion, translocation efforts relocate tortoises up to 1,000 feet from project impact zones into undisturbed burrows or habitat, as guided by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Biological Opinions from 2012, to minimize disturbance. Habitat fencing includes tortoise-proof barriers at key sites like Area II's Explosive Ordnance Disposal range and Creech AFB boundaries, with regular inspections to prevent access to operational areas; as of 2016, these measures were inspected annually per USFWS requirements. Pre-project surveys establish buffer zones around burrows, and personnel training programs educate military staff on tortoise avoidance. The 2025 Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan (INRMP) updates these efforts, planning up to 40 field days of surveys for the Mojave desert tortoise on Nellis AFB and the NTTR, including up to 6 days of helicopter use. Bird migration safeguards at the complex prioritize raptors and other avian species under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act and Executive Order 13186. The 99th Civil Engineer Squadron's Environmental Management Flight conducts raptor monitoring, including point counts and pre-construction surveys for nesting birds like the , , and , to mitigate risks from aircraft strikes via the Bird/Wildlife Aircraft Strike Hazard program. Seasonal restrictions apply in adjacent areas such as the Key Pittman Wildlife Management Area, where access is limited from February 15 to August 15 to protect breeding and migration corridors for waterfowl and shorebirds in the , aligning with Department of Wildlife regulations. These efforts include depredation permits for conflict resolution and data sharing post-incidents to refine protocols. Restoration projects focus on rehabilitating disturbed habitats through seeding native plants after testing and fire activities, in partnership with the USFWS via a 1997 updated in 2013 and 2014. Initiatives reseed burn scars, roadsides, and impact zones with Mojave Desert natives, such as applying pre-emergent treatments to over 15,000 acres of invasive species on the , followed by native plantings to enhance recovery. Collaborations with USFWS and the support seed collection and habitat enhancement, including fencing springs to protect vegetation from ungulates and promote in shrublands. Under the 2023 Programmatic Biological Opinion, proposed actions were determined to have "No Effect" on protected species such as the Mojave desert tortoise, with zero incidental takes noted under its framework as of April 2025. The 2025 INRMP includes climate adaptation measures addressing drought resilience through monitoring of water parameters and vegetation changes, installation of exclusionary fencing around springs (e.g., at Kawich Peak, Sumner, and Log), with native landscaping, and integrated surveys to sustain arid ecosystems amid changing patterns.

Cultural and Historical Resources

The Nellis Air Force Base Complex encompasses a vast area with significant cultural and historical resources, including numerous archaeological sites that reflect prehistoric Native American occupation and later military activities. Over the years, surveys have documented hundreds of such sites across the (NTTR) and base proper, with examples including Paiute petroglyphs at locations like Range 64 and panels in remote canyons, as well as World War II-era relics such as debris and temporary structures from early operations. These resources are managed through the Nellis Cultural Resources Program under the 99th Civil Engineer Squadron, which maintains the Nellis Air Force Base Cultural Resources Archive—a digital repository containing over 600 documents, datasets, and images from archaeological investigations to ensure compliance with federal laws like the . Historical preservation efforts focus on structures tied to the base's military heritage, with several World War II hangars and Cold War-era bunkers evaluated as eligible for listing on the due to their role in training and nuclear testing support. Annual surveys and inventories, such as those conducted under the Integrated Cultural Resources Management Plan (ICRMP), identify and protect these assets while balancing mission needs; for instance, over 1,000 architectural structures have been cataloged, including alert hangars from the . Tribal consultations are a of , with formal agreements established since 1995 between the U.S. and the Southern Paiute Nation, among 17 affiliated tribes, to facilitate access to sacred sites and incorporate into preservation decisions. These partnerships include annual face-to-face meetings, field visits to over 90 Native American cultural sites, and documentation of 700 pages of tribal oral histories, ensuring culturally sensitive handling of resources like burial grounds and ceremonial landscapes. In 2025, ongoing efforts include the digitization of more than 605 cultural resource documents within the Nellis Archive to enhance accessibility and long-term preservation, alongside mitigation measures for Master Plan expansions such as the Northern Hub Development Project, where new surveys identified and protected seven historic-era archaeological sites from World War II, Korean, and Vietnam periods. These initiatives, detailed in the Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement, involve tribal input and avoidance protocols to minimize impacts on eligible resources during infrastructure growth.

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  96. https://www.acc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2359521/nttr-training-our-way-to-victory/
  97. https://www.nellis.af.mil/Portals/104/Nellis%2520AFB%2520CSTR%2520DEA%2520combined%2520%2528APR%252030%25202025%2529.pdf
  98. https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/613651/rpas-prove-vital-in-fight-against-isil/
  99. https://www.airforce.com/thunderbirds/schedule
  100. https://www.nellis.af.mil/News/Article/4151913/red-flags-50th-anniversary/
  101. https://www.darpa.mil/program/air-space-total-awareness-for-rapid-tactical-execution
  102. https://www.nellis.af.mil/News/Tag/39/innovation/
  103. https://www.dvidshub.net/news/406965/nellis-natural-resources-program-strives-protect-mojave-desert-tortoise-population
  104. https://www.eregulations.com/nevada/hunting/ndow-wildlife-management-areas
  105. https://core.tdar.org/document/456542/range-64-petroglyph-photos
  106. https://www.reviewjournal.com/local/local-las-vegas/prehistoric-artifacts-plentiful-where-nellis-jets-rock-the-sky/
  107. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA595365.pdf
  108. https://core.tdar.org/collection/69746/nellis-air-force-base-cultural-resources-archive
  109. https://www.denix.osd.mil/awards/denix-files/sites/12/2016/03/Nellis-Air-Force-Base-Cultural-Resources-Team.pdf
  110. https://www.denix.osd.mil/awards/denix-files/sites/12/2016/03/Nellis-Air-Force-Base-Installation.pdf
  111. https://www.denix.osd.mil/na/denix-files/sites/42/2023/06/Ch-5-A-Consultation-Model.pdf
  112. https://nellisafbeis.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Nellis-AFB-Master-Planning-Draft-PEIS-APR-2025-clean-Rev1_508.pdf
  113. https://nellisafbeis.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/Executive-Summary-for-the-Nellis-AFB-Master-Planning-Draft-PEIS-APR-2025_508.pdf
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