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Numinous (/ˈnjuːmɪnəs/) means "arousing spiritual or religious emotion; mysterious or awe-inspiring";[1] also "supernatural" or "appealing to the aesthetic sensibility." The term was given its present sense by the German theologian and philosopher Rudolf Otto in his influential 1917 German book The Idea of the Holy. He also used the phrase mysterium tremendum as another description for the phenomenon. Otto's concept of the numinous influenced thinkers including Carl Jung, Mircea Eliade, and C. S. Lewis. It has been applied to theology, psychology, religious studies, literary analysis, and descriptions of psychedelic experiences.

Etymology

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Numinous was derived in the 17th century from the Latin numen, meaning "nod" and thus, in a transferred (figurative, metaphorical) sense, "divine will, divine command, divinity or majesty." Numinous is etymologically unrelated to Immanuel Kant's noumenon, a Greek term referring to an unknowable reality underlying all things.

Rudolf Otto

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The word was given its present sense by the German theologian and philosopher Rudolf Otto in his influential 1917 book Das Heilige, which appeared in English as The Idea of the Holy in 1923.[2]

Otto writes that while the concept of "the holy" is often used to convey moral perfection—and does entail this—it contains another distinct element, beyond the ethical sphere, for which he uses the term numinous.[3]: 5–7  He explains "numinous" as a "non-rational, non-sensory experience or feeling whose primary and immediate object is outside the self." This mental state "presents itself as ganz Andere,[4] wholly other, a condition absolutely sui generis and incomparable whereby the human being finds himself utterly abashed."[5]

Otto argues that because the numinous is irreducible and sui generis it cannot be defined in terms of other concepts or experiences, and that the reader must therefore be "guided and led on by consideration and discussion of the matter through the ways of his own mind, until he reaches the point at which 'the numinous' in him perforce begins to stir... In other words, our X cannot, strictly speaking, be taught, it can only be evoked, awakened in the mind."[3]: 7  Chapters 4 to 6 are devoted to attempting to evoke the numinous and its various aspects.

Using Latin, he describes it as a mystery (Latin: mysterium) that is at once terrifying (tremendum) and fascinating (fascinans).[6] He writes:

The feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a gentle tide pervading the mind with a tranquil mood of deepest worship. It may pass over into a more set and lasting attitude of the soul, continuing, as it were, thrillingly vibrant and resonant, until at last it dies away and the soul resumes its "profane," non-religious mood of everyday experience. [...] It has its crude, barbaric antecedents and early manifestations, and again it may be developed into something beautiful and pure and glorious. It may become the hushed, trembling, and speechless humility of the creature in the presence of—whom or what? In the presence of that which is a Mystery inexpressible and above all creatures.[3]: 12–13 [7]

Later use of the concept

[edit]

Otto's use of the term as referring to a characteristic of religious experience was influential among certain intellectuals of the subsequent generation.[8][9] For example, "numinous" as understood by Otto was a frequently quoted concept in the writings of Carl Jung,[10] and C. S. Lewis.[11] Lewis described the numinous experience in The Problem of Pain as follows:

Suppose you were told there was a tiger in the next room: you would know that you were in danger and would probably feel fear. But if you were told "There is a ghost in the next room," and believed it, you would feel, indeed, what is often called fear, but of a different kind. It would not be based on the knowledge of danger, for no one is primarily afraid of what a ghost may do to him, but of the mere fact that it is a ghost. It is "uncanny" rather than dangerous, and the special kind of fear it excites may be called Dread. With the Uncanny one has reached the fringes of the Numinous. Now suppose that you were told simply "There is a mighty spirit in the room," and believed it. Your feelings would then be even less like the mere fear of danger: but the disturbance would be profound. You would feel wonder and a certain shrinking—a sense of inadequacy to cope with such a visitant and of prostration before it—an emotion which might be expressed in Shakespeare's words "Under it my genius is rebuked." This feeling may be described as awe, and the object which excites it as the Numinous.[11]

Jung applied the concept of the numinous to psychology and psychotherapy, arguing it was therapeutic and brought greater self-understanding, and stating that to him religion was about a "careful and scrupulous observation... of the numinosum".[12] The notion of the numinous and the wholly Other were also central to the religious studies of ethnologist Mircea Eliade.[13][14] Mysterium tremendum, another phrase coined by Otto to describe the numinous,[3]: 12–13 [9] is presented by Aldous Huxley in The Doors of Perception in this way:

The literature of religious experience abounds in references to the pains and terrors overwhelming those who have come, too suddenly, face to face with some manifestation of the mysterium tremendum. In theological language, this fear is due to the in-compatibility between man's egotism and the divine purity, between man's self-aggravated separateness and the infinity of God.[15]

In a book-length scholarly treatment of the subject in fantasy literature, Chris Brawley devotes chapters to the concept in "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, in Phantastes by George Macdonald, in the Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis, and The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien; and in work by Algernon Blackwood and Ursula Le Guin (e.g., The Centaur and Buffalo Gals, Won't You Come Out Tonight, respectively).[16]

Neuroscientist Christof Koch has described awe from experiences such as entering a cathedral, saying he gets "a feeling of luminosity out of the numinous," though he does not hold the Catholic religious beliefs with which he was raised.[17]

In a 2010 article titled "James Cameron's Cathedral: Avatar Revives the Religious Spectacle" published in the Journal of Religion and Film, academic Craig Detweiler describes how the global blockbuster movie Avatar "traffics in Rudolph Otto’s notion of the numinous, the wholly other that operates beyond reason. [...] As spectacle, Avatar remains virtually critic proof, a trip to Otto’s mysterium tremendum et fascinans."[18] Cameron himself mentioned this in a 2022 interview with BBC Radio 1 when trying to explain the first movie's success, saying "There was that element that I call—borrowing from Carl Sagan—the numinous."[19] Sagan specifically explored the numinous concept in his 1985 novel Contact.[20]

Psychologist Susan Blackmore describes both mystical experiences and psychedelic experiences as numinous.[21] In 2009, Czech psychiatrist Stanislav Grof re-released his 1975 book Realms of the Human Unconscious under the title LSD: Doorway to the Numinous: The Groundbreaking Psychedelic Research into Realms of the Human Unconscious.[22] In his 2018 book How to Change Your Mind, journalist Michael Pollan describes his experience trying the powerful psychedelic substance 5-MeO-DMT, including the following reflection on his experience of ego dissolution:

Here words fail. In truth, there were no flames, no blast, no thermonuclear storm; I'm grasping at metaphor in the hope of forming some stable and shareable concept of what was unfolding in my mind. In the event, there was no coherent thought, just pure and terrible sensation. Only afterward did I wonder if this is what the mystics call the mysterium tremendum—the blinding unendurable mystery (whether of God or some other Ultimate or Absolute) before which humans tremble in awe.[23]

See also

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Look up numinous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Numinous

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The numinous is a term coined by German theologian and philosopher in his 1917 book Das Heilige (translated as The Idea of the Holy in 1923), referring to the non-rational, emotional dimension of religious experience that encounters the divine as a profound mystery evoking both terror and fascination. characterized this experience as a mysterium tremendum et fascinans, where mysterium denotes the wholly other and ineffable nature of the holy, tremendum captures its overwhelming power and dread-inducing majesty that diminishes the self to a "creature-feeling," and fascinans highlights its magnetic attraction and salvific allure. Derived from the Latin numen meaning or power, the numinous transcends ethical or conceptual understandings of religion, representing an innate, universal capacity for in the face of the sacred. Otto's framework positioned the numinous as the core of all religious sentiment, influencing the development of and by emphasizing subjective, non-discursive experiences over doctrinal . Building on influences from Kant's noumenal realm and Friedrich Schleiermacher's feeling of absolute dependence, Otto argued that this experience is accessible through introspection and manifests in diverse traditions, such as the biblical depictions of God's theophanies or Hindu notions of the divine in Mysticism East and West (1932). The concept's impact extends to 20th- and 21st-century scholarship, shaping analyses by figures like in The Sacred and the Profane (1957), who adapted it to explore hierophanies, and , who linked it to archetypes of the unconscious; it also informed broader fields like and of . While critiqued for and vagueness in empirical validation, the numinous remains a foundational lens for understanding the irrational, affective core of across cultures.

Origins and Conceptual Foundations

Etymology

The term "numinous" derives from the Latin numen (plural numina), signifying "divine will," "divine power," or "presence," often interpreted as a deity's nod of approval or influence in ancient Roman religion, where it denoted the spiritual essence or authority inhabiting places, objects, or actions. In Roman religious practice, referred to the active, indwelling force of a , as exemplified in Cicero's , where he describes it as a presiding over specific locales or functions, and in Ovid's , where it evokes the gods' pervasive sway in natural and ritual contexts. The adjective "numinous" entered English in the mid-17th century, formed by adding the suffix to the stem of , initially through scholarly translations and commentaries on texts that rendered the concept as pertaining to divine or spiritual qualities. Early usages, such as in theological works, conveyed a sense of sacred or essence, marking its adoption in English discourse on antiquity and . By the early , "numinous" appeared sporadically in English literature and to describe an aura of mystery or spiritual depth, reflecting a gradual shift from its concrete association with Roman divine agency toward a more abstract evocation of awe-inspiring otherness. This evolution culminated in the early , where the term increasingly denoted profound spiritual experiences, later adapted by to characterize the non-rational dimension of the holy.

Rudolf Otto's Formulation

introduced the concept of the numinous in his seminal work Das Heilige (The Idea of the Holy), first published in 1917 by J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck) in , . This book emerged during the final years of , a period of profound crisis in German society and theology, where liberal Protestant thinkers like Otto sought to revitalize religious understanding by emphasizing experiential dimensions over purely rational or historical-critical approaches dominant in the era's theology. The English translation by J.W. Harvey appeared in 1923, broadening its influence beyond German-speaking contexts. In The Idea of the Holy, defined the numinous as the non-rational, ineffable core of religious experience, characterizing it as a "wholly other" encounter with the divine that transcends moral, , or conceptual frameworks. He employed the term "numinous" (from the Latin , denoting divine power or presence) to denote this category, distinct from the rational elements of such as or . argued that the numinous manifests as mysterium tremendum et fascinans, an overwhelming mystery that evokes both dread and attraction, setting it apart from everyday emotional or aesthetic responses. Otto's framework highlighted key distinctions between the numinous and rational components of religion, positing that true religiosity integrates both: the "holy" comprises the irrational numinous element alongside rational moral qualities like purity and goodness. He critiqued overly rationalized views of religion, insisting that the numinous cannot be derived from moral sentiment alone but stands as an a priori faculty of the human mind. This formulation was shaped by influences including Friedrich Schleiermacher's emphasis on the "feeling of absolute dependence" as the essence of piety and Immanuel Kant's distinction between the phenomenal world of experience and the noumenal realm of ultimate reality. While Otto built on Schleiermacher's focus on religious feeling, he extended it to underscore the non-rational "otherness" beyond mere dependence. To illustrate the numinous, drew on biblical narratives, such as the prophet Isaiah's visionary encounter in , where the seraphim's cry of "Holy, holy, holy" and the divine throne's majesty provoke a profound sense of uncleanness and in the face of the transcendent. He also referenced phenomena, like the sublime terror of a or the vastness of the , which stir an instinctive recognition of something "wholly other" without reliance on cultural or moral interpretation. These examples underscored Otto's view that the numinous is universally accessible yet irreducible to language or reason.

Core Elements of the Numinous Experience

Mysterium Tremendum

The mysterium tremendum constitutes the terrifying dimension of the numinous experience, characterized as an ineffable mystery that evokes profound dread, divine wrath, and an acute awareness of human creatureliness and insignificance before the wholly other. In Rudolf Otto's formulation, this aspect manifests as an overwhelming sense of the divine's absolute overpoweringness and majesty, compelling silence and self-abasement in its presence. Otto illustrates it through analogies to uncontrollable natural forces, such as the sudden eruption of a storm or the unfathomable depths of an abyss, where the divine appears as an arbitrary, incalculable power akin to "stored-up " or a "hidden force of nature." For example, he compares the biblical wrath of to a convulsive natural discharge that strikes without warning, underscoring the tremendum's raw, elemental intensity. Psychologically, the mysterium tremendum induces a "daemonic dread"—a visceral, non- terror distinct from fear of punishment or ethical guilt—manifesting as shuddering, chills, and a creeping sense of horror that can range from subtle agitation to paralyzing . describes this as "spasms and convulsions" bursting from the soul's depths, evoking "icy cold blood" and "creeping flesh," yet elevating it to a that recognizes the divine's unapproachable holiness. This reaction fosters a profound "creature-feeling," where the perceives themselves as utterly dependent and negligible against the divine's vast energy and urgency, often expressed in religious as cries of "Holy, holy, holy." Historical parallels to the mysterium tremendum appear in ancient religious concepts, such as the Hebrew kadesh, which denotes holiness not merely as purity but as a dangerous, awe-inspiring force that demands separation and instills dread. Similarly, the Greek phobos (holy fear) and deima capture a numinous terror beyond ordinary fright, evident in encounters with the divine that provoke trembling reverence. In Roman tradition, the numen embodies the deity's punitive might and commanding majesty, a latent power that could unleash wrath if not properly appeased, mirroring the tremendum's unyielding authority. Otto argues for the universality of the mysterium tremendum across human religious experience, asserting its presence from primitive to sophisticated theologies as a fundamental, non-rational of the holy. In primitive religions, it surfaces as "daemonic dread" tied to impersonal forces like Polynesian mana, an occult power that inspires terror through its unpredictable, spell-like potency in fetishes, totems, and natural phenomena. This element persists in advanced faiths, such as Christianity's depictions of or mysticism's encounters with God's overwhelming otherness, demonstrating its enduring role in shaping the irrational core of all religion.

Mysterium Fascinans

In Rudolf 's framework, mysterium fascinans represents the alluring and captivating dimension of the numinous, characterized by an enchanting pull toward the divine that evokes wonder, , and a profound of intrinsic value in the holy. describes this aspect as a "something that captivates and transports [the experiencer] with a strange ravishment, rising often enough to the pitch of dizzy intoxication," distinguishing it from mere bewilderment by its magnetic, entrancing quality. This fascination arises from the numinous's manifestation as merciful, gracious, and charming, drawing the individual into a state of serene blessedness and aesthetic elevation akin to the sublime. Otto contrasts mysterium fascinans with the repellent force of mysterium tremendum, where the former's attraction balances the latter's dread, fostering a that culminates in rather than mere repulsion. In this interplay, the initial overwhelming shifts emotionally toward and love, enabling experiences of conversion where the numinous reveals a personal, transcendent presence that transforms fear into devotion. Otto illustrates this through religious motifs, such as the biblical shekinah glory—the radiant, haunting presence of in the Temple—that embodies divine and draws worshippers into enraptured communion. Culturally, mysterium fascinans resonates in Romantic portrayals of divine beauty, as seen in Percy Bysshe Shelley's "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty," where the poet depicts an elusive, consecrating spirit in nature that inspires awe and intellectual transport, mirroring Otto's concept of numinous enchantment. Otto synthesizes fascinans with tremendum to form the complete numinous experience, arguing that the attractive element tempers raw terror into a balanced reverence, preventing the holy from devolving into abstract fear and instead cultivating a holistic encounter with the divine. This integration underscores the numinous as a dual mystery that both repels and invites, essential for genuine religious feeling.

Applications in Religious and Philosophical Contexts

In Theology and Comparative Religion

In theology, the concept of the numinous has served as a foundational element for understanding the divine as "wholly other," particularly within Protestant liberalism, where it underscores God's transcendence and inaccessibility apart from revelation. Influenced by Rudolf Otto's formulation, Karl Barth integrated the numinous into his dialectical theology, emphasizing God's radical otherness as a critique of liberal theology's anthropocentric tendencies, portraying the divine encounter as an overwhelming mystery that demands faith rather than rational comprehension. In contrast, Catholic mysticism employs the numinous to describe intimate unions with the divine, where the tremendum aspect evokes purifying awe, while fascinans draws the soul toward ecstatic contemplation of God's presence. Comparative religion applies the numinous to illuminate sacred experiences across traditions, revealing patterns of awe and mystery in encounters with the divine. In Hinduism, the practice of darshana—the reverential vision of deities or gurus—evokes a numinous response of profound awe, where the devotee's gaze meets the divine's reciprocal blessing, transforming ordinary perception into a mystical revelation of the sacred. Mircea Eliade expanded Otto's numinous framework in his analysis of the sacred-profane dichotomy, positing that numinous manifestations—manifestations of divine power as "wholly other"—disrupt profane homogeneity by establishing hierophanies, or irruptions of the sacred into the world. Eliade illustrated this with non-Western examples, such as Vedic fire altars in India that cosmicize space through numinous recreation of the world's origin, or Kwakiutl totem poles in indigenous North American rituals that serve as axes mundi linking earthly and celestial realms in majestic awe. Debates persist on the numinous's fit across religious structures: in monotheistic Abrahamic traditions, it aligns with encounters of singular divine transcendence, as in prophetic visions, whereas polytheistic systems distribute numinous awe among multiple deities, potentially diluting its intensity but enriching relational diversity, as critiqued in comparative studies questioning universal applicability. Specific case studies highlight universal numinous patterns in doctrinal contexts. In , tawhid—the doctrine of 's absolute unity—evokes a numinous sense of the divine's incomprehensible oneness, particularly in Sufi mysticism where contemplation leads to fana (annihilation in ), blending tremendum dread of separation with fascinans attraction to unity. Among African traditions, ancestral veneration in Yoruba Ifa practice treats lineage spirits as numinous mediators, their altars conveying hidden mysteries of communal harmony and cosmic order through rituals that irrupt the sacred into daily life. These examples, drawn from Eliade's cross-cultural typology, underscore the numinous as a recurring motif of sacred disruption, fostering theological depth beyond Western confines.

In Psychology and Phenomenology

In the realm of phenomenology, Rudolf Otto's concept of the numinous has been explored as a pre-reflective encounter with the uncanny (Unheimlich), aligning with the influences of Edmund Husserl's focus on intentional consciousness and lived experience, as well as Martin Heidegger's analysis of Dasein as fundamentally not-at-home in the world. Husserl, in his efforts to develop a phenomenology of religion, recommended Otto's Das Heilige (1917) to Heidegger as a model for describing religious phenomena through direct intuitive grasp, free from presuppositions. Heidegger, in turn, integrated elements of the numinous into his ontology, portraying the uncanny as the primordial anxiety (Angst) revealing Being's mystery, akin to Otto's mysterium tremendum but grounded in existential thrownness rather than theological awe. This phenomenological lens emphasizes the numinous not as a cognitive construct but as an immediate, non-objectifying disclosure of the wholly other, evoking a sense of estrangement that disrupts everyday familiarity. Psychological interpretations of the numinous build on early 20th-century theories, with providing a foundational link to mystical states in (1902), where he describes such encounters as transient, ineffable, noetic, and passive, often involving a sense of unity or expanded that parallels Otto's later formulation of the numinous as a non-rational, overpowering presence. James argued that these experiences, regardless of their cultural context, reveal a "More" beyond the self, fostering personal transformation through their authoritative insight, though he cautioned against dogmatic interpretations. In contrast, offered a reductive critique in (1930), interpreting the numinous or ""—a boundless merger with the —as a regressive rooted in infantile and projection of the ego onto the external world, serving as a defense against the harsh realities of civilization and the . Freud dismissed such states as pathological remnants of early psychic development, lacking objective reality and instead fulfilling wishes for amid inevitable human discontent. Carl Jung significantly expanded the psychological dimensions of the numinous, viewing it as an archetypal manifestation of the Self—the unifying principle of the psyche—that emerges autonomously in dreams, visions, and active imagination, evoking profound emotional stirring and a sense of the sacred. In his Terry Lectures, published as Psychology and Religion (1938), Jung described the numinosum as a dynamic, non-rational energy inherent to archetypes, which compels the individual toward individuation by confronting the ego with the transcendent totality of the unconscious. For instance, Jung illustrated this through patient case studies where numinous symbols, such as mandalas or divine figures, appear in dreams to integrate fragmented aspects of the personality, fostering wholeness rather than mere terror or fascination. Unlike Otto's theological emphasis, Jung's approach treats the numinous as a universal psychic phenomenon, accessible through analytical therapy and essential for psychological health. Contemporary has begun to illuminate the numinous through studies on , a related involving vastness and accommodation, with and Jonathan Haidt's seminal 2003 framework positing that diminishes self-focus by shifting attention to larger patterns, promoting prosocial behaviors and a sense of connectedness. Subsequent brain imaging research supports this, showing that experiences deactivate regions associated with self-referential processing, such as the , while activating areas linked to reward and , as evidenced in fMRI studies of induced via natural or artistic stimuli. These findings suggest that numinous-like states may modulate neural pathways to reduce , offering empirical validation for phenomenological descriptions of encounters with the wholly other.

Later Developments and Modern Interpretations

Post-Otto Expansions

Following Rudolf Otto's seminal work, integrated the numinous into his existential theology during the 1950s, reinterpreting it as an aspect of "ultimate concern," where the divine manifests as the ground of being that evokes both and ontological depth. In his , Tillich described ultimate concern as the state of being grasped by something overwhelmingly real and holy, akin to Otto's numinous , but grounded in the power of being that overcomes non-being. This framework positioned the numinous not merely as a mystical encounter but as the foundational reality underlying human existence and faith. Similarly, H.H. Farmer offered an ethical reinterpretation of the numinous in his 1953 book The World and the Plain Man, emphasizing its role in moral discernment and personal encounter rather than purely irrational awe. Farmer argued that the numinous, as Otto conceived it, reveals a personal divine will that demands ethical response from ordinary individuals, transforming abstract mystery into a call for responsible action in daily life. This approach bridged Otto's non-rational elements with , making the numinous accessible to the "plain man" through ethical imperatives. Critiques of religious language, including descriptions of non-empirical holy experiences like the numinous, emerged prominently from . , in Language, Truth and Logic (1936), dismissed such claims as unverifiable and thus cognitively meaningless under the verification principle, reducing religious statements to emotive expressions without factual content. Responses from mid-20th-century theologians countered this by stressing the experiential validity of such experiences, arguing that their non-propositional character provides genuine disclosure of reality beyond empirical reductionism. Figures like Ian Ramsey emphasized that such experiences function as "disclosure situations," offering valid insights into the divine through evocative language, thus preserving the value of numinous-like encounters against positivist dismissal. In anthropology, Victor Turner's concept of extended ideas related to numinous experiences by linking them to ritual processes, where liminal phases in rites foster egalitarian bonds that evoke the 's overwhelming presence. In works like The Ritual Process (1969), Turner described as a spontaneous, unstructured fellowship emerging in rituals, mirroring aspects of shared awe and equality before the sacred. Philosophically, paralleled the numinous with "infinite otherness" in (1961), portraying the ethical encounter with the Other as a trace of the divine infinite that disrupts totality and demands responsibility, akin to Otto's non-rational . Levinas critiqued Otto's emphasis on ineffable mystery but retained its sense of ethical disruption by an absolute alterity. The numinous influenced mid-20th-century ecclesiastical developments, notably Vatican II (1962–1965), where discussions of liturgy emphasized recovering the sense of mystery to counteract secularization and revitalizing sacramental awe. Documents like advocated liturgical reforms that preserved the holy's enigmatic depth, fostering encounters with the sacred through active participation. In post-Holocaust , Arthur Cohen reframed Otto's tremendum as a central motif for in The Tremendum (1981), interpreting the Holocaust's horror as a manifestation of divine wrath and absence that challenges traditional justifications of evil. Cohen used this to articulate a theology of rupture, where the numinous tremendum confronts human finitude without resolution, reshaping Jewish thought on suffering and the divine.

Contemporary Usage in Culture and Scholarship

In contemporary culture, the concept of the numinous has permeated popular media, evoking feelings of and mystery akin to Rudolf Otto's original formulation. In film, Christopher Nolan's Interstellar (2014) exemplifies this through its portrayal of cosmic vastness and human transcendence, where scenes of black holes and induce a profound sense of that scholars interpret as numinous, diminishing the and fostering a connection to the infinite. Similarly, Andrei Tarkovsky's cinematic oeuvre, such as (1979) and Solaris (1972), continues to influence modern discussions, with analyses highlighting how his slow-paced visuals create "holy dullness" that invites numinous encounters, blending dread and fascination in a way that resonates in 21st-century scholarship on religious aesthetics in cinema. In literature, Peter S. Beagle's works like (1968) and recent stories such as "My Son Heydari and the " (2017) embody the numinous through as symbols of otherworldly purity and enchantment, prompting readers to confront the mysterium tremendum et fascinans in fantastical narratives that persist in cultural imagination. Scholarly debates in have reimagined the numinous to challenge patriarchal structures, emphasizing its potential for empowerment beyond traditional male-dominated interpretations of dread. For instance, constructivist approaches argue that numinous experiences can be culturally shaped and critiqued through feminist lenses, allowing women to reclaim sacred encounters as sites of agency rather than submission, as explored in phenomenological studies of religious subjectivity. In environmental theology, the numinous intersects with eco-, where encounters with nature's vastness evoke ethical responsibility; scholars link this to positive moral shifts, positioning as a bridge between Otto's mysterium and contemporary calls for ecological , though without exhaustive metrics, emphasizing qualitative transformations in worldview. Modern psychology, particularly , has integrated the numinous via research on , viewing it as a self-transcendent that promotes . Paul Piff's 2015 studies demonstrate that awe-inducing experiences, such as viewing grand landscapes, reduce self-focus and increase , with participants donating more in experimental settings—effects that align with numinous diminishment of the ego, though not all equates to religious mystery. This connection underscores 's role in fostering moral elevation post-numinous-like events, supported by broader reviews linking it to without over-relying on numerical benchmarks. Recent research as of 2023 has further explored numinous experiences through brain imaging, showing activations in areas associated with and during mystical states, complementing psychological findings. In the digital age, (VR) simulations of sacred spaces have extended experiences of wonder and reverence akin to the numinous. Critiques from atheistic perspectives, such as ' dismissal of religious experiences as neurological delusions in (2006), reject numinous claims as illusory, arguing they stem from cognitive biases rather than divine reality, influencing ongoing debates on secular interpretations.

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  36. https://dokumen.pub/origins-of-the-other-emmanuel-levinas-between-revelation-and-ethics-hardcovernbsped-0801443946-9780801443947.html
  37. https://academic.oup.com/book/4728/chapter/146957148
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320531885_The_Numinous_the_Ethical_and_the_Body_Rudolf_Otto%27S_The_Idea_of_the_Holy_Revisited
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357196645_The_Emotional_Appeal_of_Science_Fiction_Cinema_In_Awe_of_Interstellar
  40. https://philarchive.org/archive/WITAHD
  41. https://dc.swosu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2894&context=mythlore
  42. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/religious-studies/article/feminism-constructivism-and-numinous-experience/96DBBDF4FCBBB0EF4ED7F5C9FB641CB1
  43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45210973
  44. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/psp-pspi0000018.pdf
  45. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1774882/FULLTEXT01.pdf
  46. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10379167/
  47. https://philosophydungeon.weebly.com/scholar-dawkins.html
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