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Open pollination
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Open pollination
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Detasseling corn (maize) plants from one variety in a field where two varieties are planted. The male flowers are removed so that all seeds are hybrids sired from the second variety.

"Open pollination" and "open pollinated" refer to a variety of concepts in the context of the sexual reproduction of plants. Generally speaking, the term refers to plants pollinated naturally by birds, insects, wind, or human hands.[1]

Controlled pollination is the process of collecting the pollen variety from live flowers during the bloom season and processing them, and re-introducing the pollen back into the orchard via a backpack blower or dusting into the beehives. Increased yields can be accomplished and vary from 15% to 25% depending on application methods, timing, and weather conditions. A large variety of stone fruits are receptive to this process, i.e. almonds, avocados, cherries, olives, plums, etc. Controlled pollination is beneficial in times when bee flight either is hampered by bad weather or the lack of bees to pollinate enough orchards during the blooming season. Some growers do the application via aircraft and/or drones.

True-breeding definition

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"Open pollinated" generally refers to seeds that will "breed true". When the plants of an open-pollinated variety self-pollinate, or are pollinated by another representative of the same variety, the resulting seeds will produce plants roughly identical to their parents. This is in contrast to the seeds produced by plants that are the result of a recent cross (such as, but not confined to, an F1 hybrid), which are likely to show a wide variety of differing characteristics. Open-pollinated varieties are also often referred to as standard varieties or, when the seeds have been saved across generations or across several decades, heirloom varieties.[2] While heirlooms are usually open-pollinated, open-pollinated seeds are not necessarily heirlooms; open-pollinated varieties are still being developed.

One of the challenges in maintaining an open-pollinated variety is avoiding introduction of pollen from other strains. Based on how broadly the pollen for the plant tends to disperse, it can be controlled to varying degrees by greenhouses, tall wall enclosures, field isolation, or other techniques.

Because they breed true, the seeds of open-pollinated plants are often saved by home gardeners and farmers.[2] Popular examples of open-pollinated plants include heirloom tomatoes, beans, peas, and many other garden vegetables.

Uncontrolled pollination definition

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A second use of the term "open pollination" refers to pollination by insects, birds, wind, or other natural mechanisms. This can be contrasted with cleistogamy, closed pollination, which is one of the many types of self pollination.[3]

When used in this sense, open pollination may contrast with controlled pollination, a procedure used to ensure that all seeds of a crop are descended from parents with known traits, and are therefore more likely to have the desired traits.

The seeds of open-pollinated plants will produce new generations of those plants; however, because breeding is uncontrolled and the pollen (male parent) source is unknown, open pollination may result in plants that vary widely in genetic traits. Open pollination may increase biodiversity.

Some plants (such as many crops) are primarily self pollenizing and also breed true, so that even under open pollination conditions the next generation will be (almost) the same. Even among true breeding organisms, some variation due to genetic recombination or to mutation can produce a few "off types".

Relationship to hybridization

[edit]

Hybrid pollination, a type of controlled pollination in which the pollen comes from a different strain (or species), can be used to increase crop suitability, especially through heterosis. The resulting hybrid strain can sometimes be inbred and selected for desired traits until a strain that breeds true by open pollination is achieved. The result is referred to as an inbred hybrid strain.

To add some confusion, the term hybrid inbred applies to hybrids that are made from selected inbred lines that have certain desired characteristics (see inbreeding). The latter type of hybrid is sometimes designated F1 hybrid, i.e. the first hybrid (filial) generation whose parents were (different) inbred lines.

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Open pollination

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Open pollination refers to the natural process by which are fertilized through the transfer of by wind, , birds, or other environmental agents, without human intervention or controlled breeding, resulting in that typically produce offspring very similar to the parent when cross-pollination with other varieties is prevented. This method contrasts with artificial techniques and is fundamental to the of many and wild species, allowing for the maintenance of genetic traits across generations. In botanical terms, it encompasses both , where fertilizes the ovules within the same flower or , and cross-pollination, where moves between different of the same species. A key characteristic of open-pollinated varieties is their ability to "breed true," meaning the progeny exhibit predictable and stable traits resembling those of the parents, provided isolation measures prevent unintended crosses. This reliability makes open-pollinated plants particularly valuable for in and , as harvested seeds can be replanted to yield consistent results, unlike hybrid varieties whose offspring display variable and often inferior traits due to the heterozygous nature of their F1 generation. For example, crops like tomatoes, beans, and peas can be self-pollinating under open conditions, while others such as squash and brassicas often require physical isolation—such as distance or barriers—to avoid cross-pollination and preserve varietal purity. is enhanced in open-pollinated populations through and to local environments, promoting resilience against pests, diseases, and changing climates. Open-pollinated varieties form the basis for plants, which are historic cultivars passed down through generations and valued for their unique flavors, appearances, and cultural significance, though not all open-pollinated qualify as heirlooms. In modern agriculture, they support sustainable practices by enabling farmers and gardeners to produce their own seed stocks, reducing reliance on commercial suppliers and preserving in food systems. Effective management involves selecting healthy parent , ensuring proper conditions, and storing seeds in cool, dry environments to maintain viability for several years.

Core Definitions

Fundamental Definition

Open pollination is the natural process by which is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another, or the same flower, without any human intervention or control, typically facilitated by environmental agents such as , , birds, or . This contrasts with artificial or controlled methods used in breeding programs, allowing to reproduce through uncontrolled mating that can occur via or cross- depending on the species' . Open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) are cultivars resulting from this , characterized by their ability to produce that closely resemble the parent in traits when grown in isolation from other varieties, thereby maintaining genetic stability over generations. Isolation, such as through physical distance or timing of flowering, prevents unwanted cross-pollination from genetically dissimilar , ensuring the variety "breeds true" and supports practices. The concept of open pollination emerged in 19th-century and , where farmers and early selected and maintained varieties through natural reproduction without modern hybridization techniques. By the late 1800s and early 1900s, open-pollinated varieties dominated crop production, forming the basis for much of the stock used before the widespread adoption of hybrids. Common examples of plants that undergo open pollination include tomatoes, which are typically insect-pollinated and produce stable OPVs like heirlooms when isolated; beans, many of which are self-pollinating and naturally maintain varietal traits; and corn, historically grown as open-pollinated varieties reliant on for cross-pollination among plants.

True-Breeding Characteristics

True-breeding plants are those that are homozygous for the genes controlling specific traits, meaning they possess two identical alleles at those loci, which allows open pollination to produce offspring that genetically and phenotypically resemble the parent generation across multiple generations. In open-pollinated systems, this uniformity is maintained when cross-pollination with other varieties is prevented, ensuring that the progeny inherit the same homozygous combinations without introducing genetic variation. For cross-pollinated like corn, true-breeding in OPVs occurs at the level through selection and natural genetic equilibrium, where diverse but populations maintain characteristic traits over generations despite individual heterozygosity, rather than relying on homozygosity in single . Achieving true-breeding characteristics through requires several key conditions, including genetic purity of the starting , adequate isolation distances to minimize unintended cross-, and self-compatibility in the . Genetic purity is established by selecting and propagating that consistently express the desired traits over generations, often starting from a single homozygous line. Isolation distances vary by type; for example, cross-pollinated like corn typically require at least 1,640 feet (about 1/2 mile) to limit drift and preserve varietal integrity. Self-compatibility, particularly in self-pollinating , facilitates this process by allowing from the same or genetically identical neighbors to fertilize ovules without rejection mechanisms. The underlying genetic principles rely on patterns, where homozygous dominant (e.g., AA) or recessive (aa) in self-pollinating species produce gametes that, upon fertilization, yield only offspring with the same , thereby stabilizing traits. This is evident in species like peas (Pisum sativum), where naturally leads to true-breeding lines for traits such as seed color or plant height, as demonstrated in foundational experiments. Similarly, wheat (Triticum aestivum), a predominantly self-pollinating crop, exhibits Mendelian segregation that reinforces homozygosity over generations in open-pollinated fields, supporting consistent trait expression without hybridization. Examples of true-breeding open-pollinated crops include varieties of , such as 'Black Seeded Simpson', which retains its loose-leaf form and crisp texture through without needing extensive isolation. Peppers, like the 'California Wonder', also demonstrate true-breeding potential as self-compatible plants, producing bell fruits of uniform size and color in subsequent generations when grown in isolation from other pepper varieties.

Pollination Processes

Natural Mechanisms

Open pollination occurs through various natural agents that facilitate the transfer of from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another, primarily in the absence of intervention. These agents include abiotic factors like (anemophily) and (hydrophily), as well as biotic vectors such as (entomophily) and birds (ornithophily). In anemophily, plants produce lightweight, smooth grains that can be carried long distances by air currents, often in grasses and where flowers lack showy petals to conserve energy. Entomophily relies on insects like bees and butterflies, which are attracted to flowers with bright colors, scents, and nectar rewards; these plants typically have sticky or spiny pollen that adheres to the pollinator's body for transfer. Ornithophily involves birds such as hummingbirds, drawn to tubular red flowers with copious nectar and pollen adapted for quick release upon contact. Hydrophily, rarer and limited to aquatic plants like Vallisneria, features mucilaginous pollen that floats or dissolves in water to reach submerged stigmas. The process unfolds in distinct stages: pollen release from mature anthers, often triggered by environmental cues like or animal activity; dispersal via the agent to a compatible stigma; capture by the stigma's adhesive or receptive surface; and subsequent , where the emerges and grows through the style to deliver sperm cells for fertilization of the . Plant reproductive structures play a key role, with many species featuring perfect flowers that contain both stamens and pistils in hermaphroditic individuals, enabling self- or cross-pollination within the same plant. In contrast, dioecious species like willows (Salix spp.) have separate male and female plants, requiring pollen dispersal between individuals for successful reproduction, often aided by . In ecosystems, open pollination manifests diversely; for instance, bee-mediated supports fruit set in orchards, where honeybees and native solitary bees transfer among apple or cherry blossoms. Wind-driven anemophily dominates grasslands, as seen in prairie like big bluestem, where vast clouds ensure cross-pollination across open landscapes.

Influencing Factors

Environmental factors significantly influence the success of open pollination by affecting viability and activity. High temperatures can reduce production, prevent its release from anthers, kill grains outright, and disrupt growth, leading to lower fertilization rates in crops; for example, in pumpkins temperatures exceeding 95°F (35°C) during the day or 75°F (24°C) at night, and in snap beans night temperatures above 68°F (20°C). Similarly, low relative dehydrates , causing rapid loss of viability, while moderate to high helps maintain content in grains and extend their , with optimal levels varying by (e.g., around 50% for olives, 70% for ). Rainy or windy further hampers insect pollinators by limiting their flight and , reducing transfer efficiency during critical flowering periods. Biological variables also play a key role in open pollination outcomes, particularly through availability and plant . Diverse and abundant pollinators enhance production and by facilitating effective cross-pollination, providing resilience against environmental fluctuations and alleviating limitation in both natural and agricultural settings. In contrast, low pollinator availability in fragmented habitats leads to reduced set and increased variability in due to inconsistent transfer. Population density of compatible plants further modulates success; large, contiguous patches attract more pollinators and receive higher deposition, while small or isolated populations experience severe limitation, resulting in lower production and greater variability from limited compatible mates. The presence of incompatible alleles in nearby plants can exacerbate this variability, as open pollination often yields mixed progeny with diverse traits due to selective cross-compatibility. In natural settings, isolation techniques help minimize unwanted cross-pollination during open pollination. Geographic barriers, such as rivers or gradients, physically separate compatible populations, reducing interspecies flow; for instance, the isolates Himalayan Roscoea species across regions. Temporal differences in flowering time serve as another barrier, with non-overlapping bloom periods preventing hybridization; examples include early-flowering Roscoea tumjensis avoiding overlap with late-flowering R. capitata. Outcrossing poses notable risks in cross-pollinating species under open pollination, potentially leading to hybrid vigor or loss of genetic purity. In corn fields adjacent to diverse sources, unintended introduces foreign alleles, diluting uniformity and causing variability in plant height, maturity, and yield; management practices are used to limit to ≤1% at distances up to 200 meters. While this can confer hybrid vigor through , restoring traits like increased lost in inbred lines, it undermines purity in open-pollinated varieties intended for consistent reproduction.

Comparisons to Other Methods

Relation to Hybridization

Hybridization in involves the controlled or natural crossing of genetically distinct parents to produce offspring with combined genetic traits, often resulting in first-generation (F1) hybrids that exhibit , or hybrid vigor, characterized by superior performance such as increased growth, yield, or resistance compared to the parents. arises from the interaction of diverse alleles, leading to enhanced vigor in areas like and fertility, though subsequent generations may not maintain this uniformity without repeated crossing. In contrast to deliberate hybridization, open pollination allows for unintentional hybridization when pollen from nearby genetically distinct plants, including hybrids, reaches receptive flowers via , , or other natural vectors, potentially altering the genetic makeup of open-pollinated varieties (OPVs). This cross-pollination can occur in open fields where isolation distances are insufficient, leading to and loss of varietal purity in crops like corn, where hybrid pollen can inadvertently fertilize OPV silks, producing mixed offspring that deviate from true-to-type characteristics. For instance, in production, the heavy pollen load from hybrid varieties can travel significant distances, contaminating adjacent OPV fields and introducing hybrid traits into saved s. A notable historical example is the 20th-century transition from open-pollinated to hybrid in the United States, where farmers adopted hybrids starting in the late , driven by yield advantages that increased from an of about 26 bushels per acre in the early to around 30-40 bushels by the late , with averages reaching approximately 30 bushels per acre during the decade. This shift, accelerated by public breeding programs and commercial seed companies, led to hybrids comprising nearly 100% of U.S. corn acreage by the , but it also contributed to reduced on-farm by replacing diverse open-pollinated populations with fewer uniform hybrid lines. Open pollination offers benefits in preserving traits and , as it maintains populations that can be reliably saved and replanted across generations without the need for proprietary parent lines, supporting and in varied environments. However, it risks variability and lower initial productivity compared to hybridization, which provides uniformity for mechanical harvesting and consistent high yields—often 50-100% greater than open-pollinated counterparts—though at the cost of dependency on annual purchases and potential erosion of traditional varieties. This trade-off highlights hybridization's role in modern agriculture's emphasis on efficiency, while open pollination sustains legacy traits essential for resilience.

Differences from Controlled Pollination

Controlled pollination refers to human-managed techniques designed to facilitate specific genetic crosses between parent in breeding programs, ensuring that pollination occurs only between desired individuals. These methods typically involve , where pollen is manually transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another; bagging, which uses fine mesh or paper bags to exclude unwanted pollen; or isolation cages that physically separate to prevent cross-contamination from external sources. In contrast to open pollination, which relies on natural vectors like or and results in variable due to uncontrolled genetic mixing, controlled pollination provides high predictability by yielding uniform progeny with targeted traits, such as resistance or yield improvements in hybrids. This precision comes at the cost of greater , as techniques like —removing anthers to prevent —require skilled manual intervention for each cross, often limiting application to small-scale breeding efforts. Open pollination, however, offers superior and low cost, making it suitable for extensive cultivation without ongoing human oversight, though it sacrifices uniformity for . Practical examples highlight these distinctions: in fruit tree orchards, controlled pollination is employed during breeding to develop specific varieties, such as hand-pollinating apple trees to create scab-resistant cultivars by isolating flowers and applying from selected parents, ensuring consistent traits across generations. Conversely, open pollination dominates in meadows, where species like native asters or sunflowers naturally exchange via , promoting diverse populations adapted to local environments without intervention. The evolution of controlled pollination techniques traces back to early practices in the , when scientists like Joseph Kölreuter conducted artificial hybridizations in to demonstrate cross-compatibility, laying foundational principles for modern plant improvement. By the early , methods advanced with the integration of and isolation in corn breeding programs, enabling the production of hybrid seeds on a commercial scale, as seen in U.S. agricultural experiments starting in the . Today, these techniques have refined further with tools like hot-water for heat-sensitive crops, enhancing efficiency in breeding for traits like while building on centuries of iterative human control over natural reproductive processes.

Practical Applications

Role in Agriculture

Open-pollinated seeds play a key role in sustainable crop production by enabling farmers to save and replant seeds from their harvests, thereby reducing the annual need to purchase hybrid seeds that cannot be reliably reproduced. This practice supports long-term agricultural self-sufficiency, particularly in systems emphasizing low-input farming, where open-pollinated varieties often require fewer fertilizers and pesticides compared to hybrids. Economically, open-pollinated seeds offer significant cost savings for smallholder farmers in developing regions, as they eliminate recurring seed expenses and allow for local adaptation without dependence on commercial suppliers. In contexts, such as Bingenheimer Saatgut AG's breeding programs in , which distribute open-pollinated organic seeds across , these varieties enhance affordability and resilience for diverse crops. Similarly, in , smallholder farmers in favor open-pollinated vegetable seeds for their low cost and ease of use in organic systems. In commercial agriculture, open pollination presents challenges due to the risk of from hybrid or genetically modified , which can dilute varietal purity and affect quality. To mitigate this, regulations mandate isolation zones between fields; for instance, USDA seed certification standards require minimum distances such as for aerial-seeded varieties to prevent cross-pollination. These guidelines ensure compliance in certified production, though enforcement can increase operational costs for large-scale growers. Case studies highlight the revival of open-pollinated beans in to bolster ; for example, traditional ( lunatus) landraces in demonstrate superior adaptability to and temperature stress compared to commercial cultivars, supporting smallholder amid changing conditions. In the Andean region, diverse landraces exhibit heterogeneous responses to climatic variations, enabling for enhanced plasticity in variable environments.

Importance for Seed Saving and Biodiversity

Open-pollinated plants facilitate seed saving by allowing gardeners and farmers to harvest mature seeds from their crops and replant them year after year, yielding offspring that closely resemble the parent plants in traits such as growth habit, yield, and flavor. This reliability stems from the natural pollination process, which stabilizes varietal characteristics without the need for specialized equipment or purchased inputs. In contrast, seeds from hybrid varieties fail to "breed true," often producing unpredictable results due to genetic heterogeneity, making open pollination essential for cost-effective, self-reliant seed propagation in home gardens and small farms. The preservation of open-pollinated varieties significantly bolsters biodiversity by sustaining heirloom and landrace crops, which embody diverse genetic pools honed by local environments over centuries. These varieties counteract genetic erosion driven by the dominance of monoculture hybrids, which homogenize crop genetics and heighten vulnerability to pests, diseases, and environmental stresses. For instance, Seed Savers Exchange, established in 1975, has conserved over 20,000 heirloom and open-pollinated varieties through community-driven exchanges and seed banks, ensuring the survival of rare types like the Brandywine tomato and maintaining agricultural heritage against commercial pressures. Globally, open-pollinated varieties underpin in indigenous communities by enabling the continued cultivation of culturally significant crops that provide nutritional diversity and resilience. These plants, often landraces adapted to specific ecosystems, support traditional farming systems that have sustained populations for millennia, fostering self-sufficiency amid economic and environmental challenges. Moreover, their inherent facilitates adaptation to , as farmers can select and propagate individuals exhibiting traits like or heat resistance, thereby enhancing crop viability in shifting conditions. Open pollination aligns with international conservation efforts through the ' International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which promotes the ex situ and safeguarding of diverse , including open-pollinated heirlooms and landraces, to prevent loss and enable equitable access for breeding and food production. The treaty's multilateral system facilitates the exchange of these resources among 155 contracting parties (as of October 2025), integrating open-pollinated varieties into global strategies for protection and .

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