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Pilot fish
Pilot fish
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Pilot fish
Near Mangalore, India
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Carangiformes
Suborder: Carangoidei
Family: Carangidae
Subfamily: Naucratinae
Genus: Naucrates
Rafinesque, 1810
Species:
N. ductor
Binomial name
Naucrates ductor
Synonyms[2]
  • Gasterosteus ductor Linnaeus, 1758
  • Hemitripteronotus quinquemaculatus Lacepède, 1801
  • Naucrates fanfarus Rafinesque, 1810
  • Naucrates indicus Lesson, 1831
  • Naucrates noveboracensis Cuvier, 1832
  • Nauclerus compressus Valenciennes, 1833
  • Seriola dussumieri Valenciennes, 1833
  • Seriola succincta Valenciennes, 1833
  • Nauclerus abreviatus Valenciennes, 1833
  • Nauclerus brachycentrus Valenciennes, 1833
  • Nauclerus triacanthus Valenciennes, 1833
  • Nauclerus annularis Valenciennes, 1833
  • Nauclerus leucurus Valenciennes, 1833
  • Naucrates cyanophrys Swainson, 1839
  • Naucrates serratus Swainson, 1839
  • Thynnus pompilus Gronow, 1854
  • Naucrates polysarcus Fowler, 1905
  • Naucrates angeli Whitley, 1931

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is a carnivorous fish of the trevally, or jackfish family, Carangidae.[3] It is widely distributed and lives in warm or tropical open seas.

Description

[edit]
Pilot fish swimming with an oceanic whitetip shark

The pilot fish congregates around sharks, rays, and sea turtles, where it eats ectoparasites on, and leftovers around, the host species;[4] younger pilot fish are usually associated with jellyfish and drifting seaweeds.[5] They are also known to follow ships, sometimes for long distances; one was found in County Cork, Ireland,[6] and many pilot fish have been sighted on the shores of England.[7][8] Their fondness for ships led the ancients[clarification needed] to believe that they would navigate a ship to its desired course.[9]

The pilot fish's colour is between dark blue and blackish-silver, with the belly being lighter in colour.[10][11][12] The pilot fish is also known to have a temporary variation of colour when excited; its dark-coloured bars disappear, and its body turns silvery-white, with three broad blue patches on its back.[13] It can be recognised by its five to seven distinctive traverse bands,[14] which are of a much darker colour than the rest of the body.[11] The pilot fish can grow up to 60–70 cm in length.[15]

The pilot fish is edible[16][17] and is said to taste good,[18][19] but it is rarely available due to its erratic behaviour when caught.[20]

While pilot fish can be seen with all manner of sharks, they prefer accompanying the oceanic whitetip shark, Carcharhinus longimanus.[21] The pilot fish's relationship with sharks is a mutualist one; the pilot fish gains protection from predators, while the shark gains freedom from parasites.[22] It was often said by sailors that sharks and pilot fish share something like a "close companionship";[23] there were even tales of this fish following ships which had captured "their" shark for up to six weeks[24] and showing signs of distress in its absence.[25][26]

It is rare that a shark will feed on a pilot fish,[27] and smaller pilot fish are frequently observed swimming into sharks' mouths to clean away fragments of food from between their teeth.

Etymology and metaphors

[edit]

There are a few possible, conflicting etymologies for the term "pilot fish". One is that seafaring people believed that pilot fish, which would appear around the bow of their ships when they were close to land, were leading (or piloting) them back to port.[28] An alternative etymology is that pilot fish were once, erroneously,[29] thought to be piloting sharks to food,[30][31] or even (as legends have it) piloting ships, whales and swimmers to safety.[32]

The pilot fish is sometimes used as a metaphor or simile; "they are like the pilot fish to the shark, serving to lead him to his victim".[33] Pilot fish are also used as a metaphor or simile for scavengers or looters which accompany a greater threat.

In myth

[edit]

In Greek mythology, a sailor called Pompilus helped the nymph Ocyrhoë when she was fleeing away from the amorous god Apollo. The sailor moved the nymph from Miletus to the island of Samos and the god punished him by changing him into a pilot fish.[34]

Pancrates of Arcadia stated that it was a sacred fish in honour to Poseidon and that it was forbidden to eat it. However, a fisherman called Epopeus ate it and paid for his audacity with his life.[35]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pilot fish

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is a carnivorous species of jackfish in the family , distinguished by its slender, body marked with 6–7 prominent dark vertical bars, a deeply forked caudal , and a maximum total length of 70 cm. Native to tropical and subtropical marine waters worldwide, it inhabits pelagic oceanic environments from the surface to depths of 300 m or more, often associating closely with large predators like sharks, rays, turtles, and marine mammals in a semi-obligate commensal relationship that provides protection and foraging opportunities. This species exhibits rapid growth and batch spawning, with reproductive peaks observed in and late year in some populations, adapting to the unstable . Juveniles, which can reach 30 cm within months, aggregate beneath floating debris, , or fish aggregating devices (FADs), where they primarily consume planktonic prey such as decapod larvae. Adults shift to a more opportunistic diet, preying on small bony , pelagic crustaceans, and ectoparasites gleaned from host animals, occasionally entering the mouths of to feed without harm. Notable for its tolerance of extreme conditions, N. ductor has been documented following hosts to bathypelagic depths exceeding 900 m, enduring low temperatures and high pressures, which underscores its ecological versatility. As a common in FAD fisheries, it plays a role in marine food webs but faces incidental capture pressures in tropical operations.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Scientific classification

The pilot fish, scientifically known as Naucrates ductor, is a within the family , commonly referred to as jacks and pompanos, which comprises approximately 147 species across 39 genera. This family is characterized by its members' compressed bodies, forked caudal fins, and often silvery coloration, adapted for pelagic lifestyles in marine environments. The full taxonomic hierarchy of N. ductor is as follows:
  • Kingdom: Animalia
  • Phylum:
  • Class: Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)
  • Order: Carangiformes
  • Family:
  • Subfamily: Naucratinae
  • Genus: Naucrates Rafinesque, 1810
  • Species: Naucrates ductor (Linnaeus, 1758)
The species was originally described by in his 1758 work as Gasterosteus ductor, reflecting early classifications that placed it among sticklebacks before its reassignment to based on morphological and molecular evidence. The genus Naucrates is monotypic, containing only this species, and belongs to the subfamily Naucratinae, which distinguishes it from other carangids by features such as its elongate body and association with larger marine vertebrates. The order was established in modern taxonomy to separate these fishes from the broader , incorporating phylogenetic analyses that highlight their distinct evolutionary lineage among percomorphs.

Etymology

The common name "pilot fish" for Naucrates ductor originated in the 1630s, derived from the English words "pilot" and "fish," based on the longstanding maritime belief that these fish guide sharks to their prey or lead ships safely to harbor. This perception arose from observations of pilot fish swimming ahead of larger marine animals, including sharks and vessels, though modern biology attributes their behavior to opportunistic feeding on parasites and scraps rather than active piloting. The genus name Naucrates is New Latin, coined from Late Greek naukratēs, meaning "pilot fish" or "ship ruler," combining naus ("ship") and -kratēs ("ruler" or "master," from kratos meaning "strength" or "power"). The epithet ductor derives from the Latin verb ducere, meaning "to lead" or "to guide," reflecting the same associative behavior that inspired the . The species was first described by in 1758 as Gasterosteus ductor, underscoring the fish's historical reputation as a maritime companion; the current binomial Naucrates ductor reflects its placement in the Naucrates established by in 1810.

Physical description

Morphology

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) possesses an elongate, body that is shallow and barely compressed laterally, facilitating its agile swimming in open waters. Adults typically attain a maximum total length of 70 cm, though the common length is around 40 cm. The head is relatively small with a blunt formed by a sharp taper above the anterior half of the upper ; the upper jaw is narrow posteriorly and extends to the anterior margin of the eye, while both jaws bear bands of minute, fine teeth. The is divided into two sections: the first comprises 4 to 5 small, free spines, and the second consists of 1 spine followed by 25 to 29 soft rays. The anal fin features two detached spines anteriorly, followed by 1 spine and 15 to 17 soft rays, with its base shorter than that of the second . Pectoral fins are short, measuring less than the head length; the caudal fin is strongly forked, supported by a slender peduncle equipped with well-developed fleshy keels on each side, along with dorsal and ventral grooves. No finlets are present behind the dorsal or anal fins. The body is covered with very small ctenoid scales, and the runs without scutes or enlarged scales. On the first , there are typically 6 to 7 rakers on the and 15 to 20 (including rudiments) on the lower limb.

Coloration and markings

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) exhibits a distinctive coloration featuring a body that ranges from dark to pale bluish dorsally, transitioning to a lighter silvery or whitish ventral surface. This bicolored pattern provides in the open , blending with the blue water above and lighter undersides below. Prominent markings include 6 to 7 broad, vertical black bars that extend across the body, often reaching onto the dorsal, caudal, and sometimes anal fins, creating a striped appearance that aids in recognition and possibly schooling behavior. The caudal fin lobes bear white tips, as do the posterior edges of the second dorsal and anal fins, adding contrasting highlights to the overall pattern. These bars are most vivid in juveniles and may vary slightly in number or intensity with age or environmental factors. In addition to static markings, pilot fish display transient color changes during social interactions, particularly when associating with or during aggressive chases. The dark bars can fade rapidly, resulting in a predominantly silvery-white body with irregular bluish patches along the dorsum, while the ventral area remains pale; these shifts revert once the interaction ceases and may serve signaling functions dynamics. Such patterns were documented in equatorial Pacific observations, highlighting their behavioral adaptability.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) exhibits a circumtropical distribution, inhabiting warm oceanic waters across multiple ocean basins. It is primarily found in tropical and subtropical seas, with records extending into some temperate regions as vagrants. In the Atlantic Ocean, the species ranges from , , southward to in the western Atlantic, while in the eastern Atlantic, it occurs from the and (as rare vagrants) through the to , including the and Ascension islands. The also hosts populations, with confirmed occurrences in the Levantine Basin and . In the Eastern Pacific, it ranges from , , southward to , including the . Across the , N. ductor is distributed from the and eastward to the Hawaiian, Line, and Tuamotu islands, extending northward to southern and southward to . Juveniles and adults are typically pelagic, associating with floating debris or larger marine animals, which facilitates their wide dispersal in open ocean environments.

Preferred environments

The pilot fish, Naucrates ductor, is primarily an epipelagic oceanic species inhabiting marine environments across tropical and subtropical waters. It prefers open ocean habitats, often in association with floating structures or larger marine animals, which provide shelter and opportunities. Adults exhibit a semi-obligate commensal relationship with , rays, , and other large bony fishes, swimming alongside these hosts to benefit from protection and access to food scraps. Juveniles show a strong affinity for drifting objects, including , , and artificial fish aggregating devices (FADs), where they form aggregations beneath the surface. These associations are particularly evident in surface waters during mid-summer to early winter in regions like the , aiding in predator avoidance and prey capture. The species is most commonly observed in the upper (0-300 m) but can tolerate depths exceeding 900 m when associating with deep-diving hosts. Water temperature preferences span 7.9-28.1°C, with a mean of 20.9°C, aligning with its circumtropical distribution in warm seas. While capable of venturing into reef-associated areas, pilot fish favor pelagic zones over strictly coastal or benthic habitats, reflecting their nomadic, host-dependent lifestyle.

Biology

Diet and feeding

The diet of the pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) primarily consists of small planktonic organisms, with juveniles exhibiting a strongly planktivorous feeding strategy. Stomach content analyses of juvenile specimens associated with fish aggregating devices (FADs) in the central Mediterranean reveal that pelagic crustaceans, particularly hyperiid amphipods, dominate the diet, accounting for up to 88% numerical abundance and 66% weight in samples from Sicilian waters. Other key prey include pelagic gastropods such as Atlantidae (28% weight), decapod larvae, alciopid polychaetes, and fish larvae, with an Index of Relative Importance (IRI) highlighting amphipods at 13,686. Similar findings from eastern Mediterranean FADs emphasize decapod larvae (IRI 1,110), hyperiid amphipods (IRI 605), and alciopid polychaetes (IRI 800) as primary components, comprising over 65% of numerical abundance across 221 examined stomachs. Feeding occurs mainly in the epipelagic layer, where pilot fish exploit the diel vertical migrations of , showing selectivity for neustonic hyperiid amphipods as a specialist prey item in western Mediterranean assemblages around floating objects. Empty stomachs are infrequent (8-11% fullness index), indicating consistent opportunities near surface structures like FADs or drifting , though these do not serve as direct sources. Juveniles up to approximately 30 cm standard length (around 6 months old) maintain this plankton-based diet, with no evidence of direct consumption from FADs themselves. In adults, dietary shifts occur with ontogenetic changes and host associations, transitioning toward scavenging on leftovers, excrement, and possibly ectoparasites from larger marine animals such as , rays, and . Observations note consumption of host food scraps, small fishes, and during oceanic migrations, supporting a semi-obligate commensal feeding ecology. However, direct stomach content evidence for parasite ingestion remains limited, with planktonic items persisting as a basal component even in larger individuals.

Reproduction and life cycle

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is oviparous and reproduces through batch spawning, releasing eggs in multiple batches over a prolonged season without . Spawning occurs in open water or near the substratum, with peaks observed in July and December in the Mediterranean, and evidence of activity from to in the Aegean and regions. Eggs are pelagic, oval-shaped with a large perivitelline space and no oil globule, featuring a long filament at one pole that likely attaches them to floating objects or the ovary wall during development. Upon hatching, larvae are pelagic and measure 2.0–3.9 mm in length, appearing in ichthyoplankton samples during mid-summer and early autumn. Juveniles, or 0-group individuals, rapidly transition to associating with floating debris, , and drifting for protection, often aggregating under fish aggregating devices (FADs) from mid-summer to early winter. This early life stage involves fast growth, with specimens reaching up to 31.2 cm fork length within four months and ages estimated at 50–141 days based on increments. Sexual maturity is attained at approximately 25 cm total length, typically after a few months of age, with ripe gonads observed in individuals exceeding 27.6 cm total length. Growth follows a von Bertalanffy model, characterized by rapid early increases that slow over time, allowing adults to reach a maximum total length of 70 cm. As adults, pilot fish continue their pelagic lifestyle, forming symbiotic associations with larger marine animals while completing their reproductive cycles in tropical and subtropical waters.

Behavior and ecology

Symbiotic relationships

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) exhibits symbiotic associations primarily with larger marine vertebrates, including , rays, sea turtles, and marine mammals, where it benefits from and access to resources while providing services to the host. These relationships are typically classified as commensal, though some mutualistic elements may exist, as the pilot fish feeds on ectoparasites, dead skin, and food remnants from the host's meals, potentially reducing parasite loads with uncertain direct benefits to the host. For instance, pilot fish often position themselves near the snout or pectoral fins of , darting in to consume parasitic crustaceans that infest the host's body, sometimes swimming ahead or beside the host. This behavior is observed across various species, enhancing the pilot fish's foraging opportunities without apparent harm to the shark. Similar interactions occur with rays and sea turtles, where adult pilot fish accompany these hosts to exploit trophic resources like parasite removal and meal scraps. Associations with marine mammals, such as dolphins and whales, have also been observed, providing similar protective and benefits. Juveniles, in particular, may transition from associations with inanimate floating objects to these living hosts as they mature, suggesting an ontogenetic shift in symbiotic preferences driven by size and vulnerability. Observations indicate commensal elements, as the hosts may derive minimal direct benefits beyond incidental , but the consistent proximity and behavioral adaptations underscore potential reciprocal advantages. Juvenile pilot fish also form protective associations with jellyfishes, particularly siphonophores like Physalia, where they shelter among the tentacles to evade predators while feeding on organisms attracted to or captured by the host. This symbiosis provides the pilot fish with and refuge in open pelagic waters, though the jellyfish receives no evident benefit, aligning more closely with in this context. Such interactions highlight the pilot fish's opportunistic strategy for survival in dynamic marine environments.

Association with floating objects

The pilot fish, Naucrates ductor, exhibits a notable association with floating objects, particularly during its juvenile stage, where it forms part of epipelagic fish assemblages beneath flotsam, fish aggregating devices (FADs), and drifting materials such as or . This behavior is semi-obligate , providing the fish with shelter from predators and access to opportunities, while the objects receive no apparent benefit. Juveniles, typically ranging from 12 to 33 cm in total length, school in these aggregations from mid-summer to early winter in regions like the , enhancing local around artificial FADs used in fisheries. In the western Mediterranean, such as around the , juvenile pilot fish (under 10 cm total length) are commonly observed with drifting anthropogenic debris (e.g., plastics and wood, comprising 63–84% of objects) and natural flotsam during – and –, often comprising a significant portion of the 25-species assemblages sampled. These associations support planktivorous feeding, with juveniles preying on neustonic hyperiid amphipods, decapod larvae, and polychaetes concentrated near the objects. As they age (around 6 months or 29–30 cm), pilot fish may abandon these floating structures, shifting to more erratic swimming and associations with larger hosts like sharks. Hypotheses for this aggregation include protection from predators via schooling, visual attraction to the objects as cues in open water, and facilitation of predation by concentrating prey. In FAD fisheries, pilot fish are frequently caught as by-catch using purse-seine nets from to , highlighting their consistent presence and the ecological role of these devices in juvenile recruitment. Some individuals reach sexual maturity while still affiliated with drifting objects, suggesting the association persists into early adulthood in certain populations.

Conservation status

Threats

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, indicating that it does not face significant risks of extinction due to its widespread tropical and subtropical distribution across oceanic waters and stable population trends. This assessment, conducted in 2015, highlights the species' resilience, with a medium recovery potential (minimum population doubling time of 1.4–4.4 years). No major directed fisheries target pilot fish, and its commensal associations with sharks, rays, turtles, and floating objects contribute to its abundance without apparent population-level declines. The most notable threat is incidental capture as bycatch in commercial fisheries, particularly tropical tuna purse seine operations that deploy fish aggregating devices (FADs). Pilot fish are frequently encountered around FADs, where they aggregate alongside target species like yellowfin and , leading to their unintended capture in the Atlantic, Indian, and . In the central Mediterranean, for instance, pilot fish comprise a portion of bycatch in dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus) FAD fisheries off , though discard rates and overall impact remain low due to the ' non-commercial status in these contexts. Similarly, in eastern purse seine nets, juveniles are caught around floating objects, but this does not constitute a population-level given the ' broad range and high . Despite these captures, pilot fish holds only minor commercial value globally, with no evidence of . Climate change poses a potential indirect threat through shifts in oceanographic conditions, such as warming surface waters and altered current patterns, which could disrupt pelagic habitats and the distribution of prey or host species like sharks. Oceanic sharks and rays, with which pilot fish often associate, have experienced a 71% global abundance decline since 1970 due to overfishing, potentially reducing symbiotic opportunities, though no direct studies confirm significant impacts on pilot fish populations. Marine debris accumulation may influence aggregation sites, as pilot fish readily associate with floating objects including plastics, but this interaction is not documented as detrimental and could even facilitate dispersal. Overall, these pressures are considered minor, with ongoing monitoring recommended to track any emerging risks in association with broader pelagic ecosystem changes.

Protection measures

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, reflecting its widespread distribution, abundance, and lack of identified major threats warranting targeted interventions. As a result, no species-specific protection measures or management plans have been implemented globally. The species indirectly benefits from general marine conservation initiatives, including the designation of marine protected areas (MPAs) in tropical and subtropical oceanic waters where it occurs, which help safeguard pelagic habitats from overexploitation and habitat degradation. It is not listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) or the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), further indicating that international trade and migration protections do not apply. Ongoing monitoring through regional fisheries assessments may provide additional safeguards against potential bycatch in pelagic fisheries, though such impacts remain minor and localized.

Cultural significance

In mythology and folklore

In ancient Greek lore, the , known as pompilos, was regarded by sailors as a sacred creature that guided vessels safely through treacherous waters, escorting ships from the open sea toward land or harbors. This belief stemmed from observations of the fish's behavior in swimming ahead of larger marine animals or vessels, leading classical authors to describe it as a divine harbinger or pilot for mariners in distress. Several writers, including Pancrates of Arcadia in his poem Occupations at Sea, declared the pompilos sacred to the sea god Poseidon and the gods of Samothrace, prohibiting its consumption under penalty of divine retribution. A cautionary tale recounts how the fisherman Epopeus ignored this taboo, caught and ate a pilot fish, only to be devoured shortly thereafter by a monstrous sea creature as punishment from Poseidon. This reverence is echoed by other sources, such as Timachidas of Rhodes and Dionysius in his work on dialects, who affirmed the fish's holy status among fishermen and seafarers. The pilot fish also features in a metamorphic myth involving the god Apollo. The , daughter of the river-god Imbrasus, fled Apollo's amorous pursuit from the island of to , where she enlisted the aid of a ferryman named Pompilus to cross a nearby . Enraged, Apollo petrified the and transformed Pompilus into a pilot fish, condemning him to forever swim alongside ships as a perpetual guide. This tale, preserved in Aelian's On Animals (15.23), underscores themes of divine jealousy and eternal servitude, linking the fish's piloting nature to a curse of assistance.

Metaphors and symbolism

The pilot fish (Naucrates ductor) has long served as a in English literature and historical writing for opportunistic followers or subordinates that accompany and benefit from a more powerful or predatory figure, often evoking images of scavengers guiding or exploiting a greater threat. This draws from early observations of the fish's association with s, where it was believed—though inaccurately—to lead predators to victims, allowing the pilot fish to scavenge remnants. A notable use appears in Thomas Babington Macaulay's 1844 essay "Barère," comparing the revolutionary to "the pilot-fish to the ," implying sycophantic behavior that facilitates a leader's actions while benefiting from the association, illustrated by a Scotch lord's quip on James I's courtiers. In 19th-century , prominently featured the pilot fish in his 1888 poem "The Maldive Shark," from the collection . Here, the "sleek little pilot-fish, azure and slim" are depicted as alert companions to the "phlegmatical" : "How alert in attendance be. / He darts through the wave, yet not leaves his charge." This imagery symbolizes a symbiotic relationship of guidance amid power, highlighting themes of opportunism and dependency where the agile thrive by attending the strong.

References

  1. https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/caribbean/en/thefishes/species/1279
  2. https://mbr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41200-021-00202-y
  3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235340618_Biological_characterization_of_pilotfish_Naucrates_ductor_from_the_FADs_fishery_of_the_Island_of_Mallorca_Western_Mediterranean
  4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283642174_Diet_of_pilotfish_Naucrates_ductor_Carangidae_associated_with_FADs_in_Sicilian_waters_central_Mediterranean
  5. https://scispace.com/pdf/the-biology-and-ecology-of-juvenile-pilotfish-naucrates-38b0symb21.pdf
  6. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10225908/
  7. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/FamilySummary.php?ID=314
  8. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=125523
  9. https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=126811
  10. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Naucrates-ductor.html
  11. https://www.etymonline.com/word/pilot-fish
  12. https://www.texassaltwaterfishingmagazine.com/fishing/education/fishy-facts/pilot-fish
  13. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Naucrates
  14. https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/sftep/en/thefishes/species/1279
  15. http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/species.asp?id=8624
  16. https://australian.museum/learn/animals/fishes/pilotfish-naucrates-ductor/
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270042285_Color_Patterns_of_Pilotfish_Naucrates_ductor_and_Their_Possible_Significance
  18. https://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=126811
  19. https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/hcmr-med-mar-sc/article/view/12183
  20. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255633940_The_biology_and_ecology_of_juvenile_pilotfish_Naucrates_ductor_associated_with_Fish_Aggregating_Devices_FADs_in_eastern_Mediterranean_waters
  21. https://fishbase.se/Reproduction/998
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376894768_Additional_Record_of_Rare_Pilot_Fish_Naucrates_ductor_Linnaeus_1758_with_Some_Biological_Notes_from_the_Northern_Aegean_Sea_Turkiye
  23. https://www.nature.com/articles/118228b0
  24. https://www.fishbase.se/references/FBRefSummary.php?ID=4233
  25. https://scientiamarina.revistas.csic.es/index.php/scientiamarina/article/view/869
  26. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/fish-bull/fb1.10.pdf
  27. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1441273
  28. https://scientiamarina.revistas.csic.es/index.php/scientiamarina/article/download/860/901/879
  29. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/190452/115322218
  30. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X25001095
  31. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Athenaeus/7B*.html
  32. https://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NympheOkyrhoe1.html
  33. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2168/2168-h/2168-h.htm
  34. https://www.owleyes.org/text/the-maldive-shark
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