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Piper excelsum
Piper excelsum
Piper excelsum
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Not to be confused with the kawakawa or mackerel tuna.

Kawakawa
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species:
P. excelsum
Binomial name
Piper excelsum
Synonyms[2]

Macropiper excelsum (G.Forst.) Miq.
Methysticum excelsum (G.Forst.) A.Lyons

Piper excelsum (formerly known as Macropiper excelsum) of the pepper family (Piperaceae) and commonly known as kawakawa, is a small tree of which the subspecies P. excelsum subsp. excelsum is endemic to New Zealand;[4] the subspecies P. e. subsp. psittacorum is found on Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and the Kermadec Islands.

Description

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Kawakawa is found throughout the North Island, and as far south as Ōkārito (43.20 °S) on the West Coast, and Banks Peninsula (43.5 °S) on the east coast of the South Island. The tree grows to 6 metres (20 feet).[4]

The leaves are often covered with holes caused by the caterpillar of the kawakawa looper moth (Cleora scriptaria). The images depict the variety majus which has larger and more glossy leaves than P. excelsum.

Leaves

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Kawakawa leaves are about 5–10 cm long by 6–12 cm wide; they are opposite to each other, broadly rounded with a short drawn-out tip and are heart-shaped at their bases. The leaves are deep green in colour if growing in the forest, but may be yellowish-green in more open situations.

Flowers

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The flowers are produced on greenish, erect spikes 2.5–7.5cm long. They can be uni- or bisexual.[5] Kawakawa flowers are quite minute and very closely placed around the spike. After pollination the flowers gradually swell and become fleshy to form small, berry-like fruits that are yellow to bright orange.

Berries

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Each berry cluster is the size of a small finger. Ripening period is January and February. These fruits are favoured by kererū or New Zealand pigeon (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) and tūī (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae). They contain very sticky juices.[5]

Uses

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Kawakawa was used as a traditional medicinal plant of the Māori.[6] An infusion made from the leaves or roots was used or its leaves were chewed to relieve toothache, and wounds were often bound in kawakawa leaves. The sweet edible yellow berries (most often found in summer on female trees) of the plant were eaten as a diuretic. Traditionally, leaves with holes that had been eaten by caterpillars were considered the best to use.[7]

In cultural contexts, host people of a marae wave leaves of kawakawa to welcome guests. Kawakawa are associated with death,[5] and at a tangi, both hosts and guests may wear wreaths of kawakawa on the head as a sign of mourning.[8]

Early European settlers to New Zealand used kawakawa in teas, and experimented using it as a flavouring agent in beer.[7] It is commonly grown as an ornamental plant in gardens.[9] Kawakawa essential oil contains myristicin, a deliriant when consumed in high concentrations.[7]

Relationship with kava

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Kawakawa is sometimes called "Māori kava" and is often confused with the kava plant (Piper methysticum). While the two plants look similar and have similar names, they are different, albeit related, species.

Kava is a traditional plant and beverage of the South Pacific. The roots of the plant are used to produce a drink with medicinal, sedative, anesthetic, euphoriant, and entheogenic properties.[10] It is most likely not a coincidence that this plant has a similar name to kawakawa. One source stated: "In New Zealand, where the climate is too cold for kava, the Māori gave the name kawa-kawa to another Piperaceae, P. excelsum, in memory of the kava plants they undoubtedly brought with them and unsuccessfully attempted to cultivate. The Māori word kawa also means "ceremonial protocol", recalling the stylised consumption of the drug typical of Polynesian societies."[10]

Common name

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The name kawakawa comes from the Māori language, where it refers to the bitter taste of the leaves, from kawa or bitter.[a]

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See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Piper excelsum

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Piper excelsum, commonly known as kawakawa, is a densely branched shrub or small tree in the family , endemic to and certain offshore islands, growing up to 6 meters tall with aromatic, heart-shaped leaves and jointed stems. The species is divided into two : P. excelsum subsp. excelsum, which is widespread in lowland forests across New Zealand's North and Islands, and subsp. psittacorum, found on the Kermadec, , and Lord Howe Islands. Formerly classified under the genus Macropiper, it features alternate, glossy leaves measuring 50–120 mm long with smooth margins, tiny unisexual flowers arranged on short spikes, and fleshy fruits that attract birds. Of significant cultural importance to , P. excelsum has been traditionally used in rongoā ( ) for its anti-inflammatory and healing properties, and it plays a key role in New Zealand's forest ecosystems as a host plant for native species. Recent scientific studies have confirmed its bioactive compounds, including phenylpropanoids and amides, supporting its potential in modern herbal applications.

Taxonomy and etymology

Classification and synonyms

Piper excelsum belongs to the genus Piper in the family and the order . The species was historically classified in the segregate genus Macropiper as Macropiper excelsum (G.Forst.) Miq., but phylogenetic analyses using nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences demonstrated that Macropiper is nested within Piper, leading to its merger based on both molecular and morphological evidence. Formal nomenclatural transfer to Piper excelsum G.Forst. and recognition of its occurred in 2012. Accepted synonyms include Macropiper excelsum (G.Forst.) Miq. and Macropiper colensoi Hook.f. Two are currently recognized: P. excelsum subsp. excelsum, which is endemic to , and P. excelsum subsp. psittacorum (Endl.) P.J.de Lange & R.O.Gardner, occurring on , , and the . These are distinguished by morphological traits such as leaf size, with subsp. excelsum featuring larger, fleshy, strongly aromatic leaves up to 12 cm long, while subsp. psittacorum has smaller (typically 8–10 cm), thinner, membranous, bullate leaves that are weakly aromatic; additionally, subsp. excelsum often shows fused stipules forming petiolar wings, whereas stipules in subsp. psittacorum are less prominent or absent. Within the genus Piper, P. excelsum belongs to a monophyletic Pacific , with its closest relatives comprising other island-endemic such as P. methysticum from the South Pacific, supported by shared morphological features like unisexual spikes and molecular markers from ITS and trnL-F regions.

Etymology and common names

The scientific name Piper excelsum derives from the genus Piper, which originates from the Latin word for pepper (piper), reflecting the plant's aromatic qualities similar to those of pepper in the Piperaceae family. The specific excelsum comes from the Latin excelsus, meaning tall or lofty, alluding to the plant's potential height of up to 6 meters as a small or . In the Māori language, the name kawakawa is derived from kawa, which means bitter or pungent, describing the sharp, spicy taste of the leaves and stems when chewed or crushed. Common English names for Piper excelsum include pepper tree and New Zealand pepper tree, emphasizing its pepper-like flavor and native range in New Zealand. The plant's naming was influenced by early European botanists during Captain James Cook's voyages; and collected specimens during the 1769 Endeavour voyage, recording the name kawakawa and proposing an initial scientific designation as Piper myristicum, later formalized as Piper excelsum by in 1786.

Description

Habit and morphology

Piper excelsum is a dioecious or small that typically grows 2–6 meters tall, forming a densely branched structure with a rounded canopy. The plant exhibits a slow growth rate, reaching maturity over several years, and can live up to several decades in natural settings. The stems and branches are distinctive, featuring swollen nodes that create a jointed appearance, with colors ranging from dark green to reddish-brown on mature growth. Branching is pseudodichotomous, often with larger axillary shoots, contributing to the plant's compact, bushy . The bark and stems are aromatic when bruised, releasing a peppery scent due to oily compounds, and display prominent leaf scars at the nodes. This vegetative morphology supports its understory role, with dense foliage providing and resilience.

Leaves

The leaves of Piper excelsum are alternate, heart-shaped, and measure 5–12 cm in length and width, with a glossy dark green upper surface and a paler underside. The leaf margins are entire or slightly wavy, supported by petioles 1–4 cm long that feature sheathing stipules adnate to the petiole base. A distinctive feature of the leaves is the presence of characteristic circular holes, often numerous and creating a "bullet-holed" appearance, caused by the feeding of larvae of the kawakawa looper (Cleora scriptaria), which selectively target this host plant. These larvae chew precise holes in the lamina, typically removing 1–5% of the leaf area per instance, though severe infestations can leave leaves tattered. The leaves are rich in essential oils and bioactive compounds, notably high concentrations of (up to 5.28 μmol/g dry weight) and elemicin (up to 9.34 μmol/g dry weight), along with phenylpropanoids, lignans, , alkaloids, and amides, which contribute to the plant's aromatic and bitter qualities. These compounds vary by leaf source and extraction method but are key to the leaves' pharmacological profile, including their occasional use in traditional teas.

Flowers and fruits

The inflorescences of Piper excelsum consist of solitary or paired axillary that bear numerous crowded, minute flowers on a slender rachis, with each flower subtended by a peltate scale measuring 1.5–2.0 mm in diameter. These typically range from 4–8 cm in length and 6 mm in diameter, appearing greenish-yellow during . The is dioecious, producing unisexual flowers on separate individuals. Male flowers feature 2–3 stamens with longitudinally dehiscent anthers on short filaments, while female flowers possess a sessile ovoid topped by 3–4 minute stigmas; both flower types lack petals and sepals. The flowers are adapted for wind , with release timed to coincide with stigma receptivity periods that facilitate cross- between . Upon successful , female inflorescences develop into erect fruiting spikes that retain their structure through maturation. The fruits form as coalescent, fleshy fused along the rachis into cylindrical clusters, ripening to a bright orange-yellow color primarily between and in the . Each measures approximately 3–5 mm in diameter, features a dimpled apex, and contains 1–2 seeds about 1.8–2.0 mm long. These fruits are primarily dispersed by native birds attracted to their sweet, aromatic flesh. Chemically, the fruits of P. excelsum contain piperine analogues such as piperedardine, along with other alkaloids and cytotoxic amides, exhibiting bioactivities similar to those in tropical Piper species.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Piper excelsum is native to New Zealand, where the nominate subspecies P. e. subsp. excelsum is endemic and widespread. It occurs commonly throughout the North Island from Northland (te Paki) southward, and on the South Island it extends from the northern coastal areas, on the west coast to about Okarito and to Banks Peninsula in Canterbury, reaching approximately 43.5°S latitude. The species also includes the subspecies P. e. subsp. psittacorum, which is indigenous to offshore islands. This subspecies is found on in the group (north of ), as well as on and in the .

Habitat preferences

Piper excelsum thrives in lowland coastal forests, scrublands, and along stream margins, generally at elevations up to 500 m, where it serves as a key component. It favors moist, well-drained, fertile soils that retain moisture without becoming waterlogged, and it exhibits high tolerance for partial shade and dappled light conditions, though prolonged exposure to full sun can stress the plant. The species is adapted to subtropical to temperate climates prevalent in its native range, requiring high annual rainfall of 1000–2000 mm to support its growth in humid environments. It is particularly sensitive to , limiting its viability in southern regions where temperatures drop below freezing, and thus performs best in frost-free or mildly frosty microclimates. In podocarp-broadleaf forests, P. excelsum commonly grows alongside nikau palms () and various ferns, contributing to the dense understory layer in these ecosystems.

Ecology

Pollination and dispersal

Piper excelsum exhibits anemophilous , with serving as the primary vector for transferring between the small, nectarless flowers densely packed on elongated spikes. The species is dioecious, bearing flowers on separate plants, which promotes cross-pollination; spikes produce abundant , while spikes feature receptive stigmas. Although the flowers lack attractants for , occasional visitation by small flies may contribute minimally to transfer. Flowering typically occurs from spring to , spanning to December in , aligning with optimal conditions in coastal and lowland forests. Following successful , the female flowers develop into clusters of orange that mature from to , providing a key food source for native frugivores. is predominantly ornithochorous, facilitated by birds such as the (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) and (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae), which consume the fleshy fruits and excrete viable seeds away from the parent plant, enhancing and forest regeneration. The structure, with multiple small seeds embedded in sweet pulp, effectively rewards dispersers while protecting seeds during gut passage. Native birds such as the and consume the fruits and occasionally flowers of P. excelsum. Extracted seeds from ripe berries demonstrate viability rates of 64–76% when fresh, remaining viable for 1–2 years under proper storage. requires consistently moist conditions in shaded, humid environments mimicking native understories, typically taking 2–4 weeks to initiate , though full emergence may extend to several months depending on and substrate. This process is often aided by natural scarification from avian digestion, breaking more effectively than manual methods.

Interactions with fauna

The primary herbivore of Piper excelsum is the kawakawa looper (Cleora scriptaria), a native geometrid whose larvae feed nocturnally on the leaves, creating distinctive circular or irregular holes that are a common feature of mature foliage. This herbivory can result in substantial loss, with studies showing typical damage of 1-5% leaf area, and up to 12% in untreated over several months, though the tree tolerates it without significant growth reduction. In response, P. excelsum employs chemical defenses, including alkaloids and other secondary metabolites concentrated in the leaves, which deter further feeding by making the tissue unpalatable or toxic to the larvae after initial damage. These induced defenses can alter leaf chemistry systemically, enhancing resistance in undamaged parts of the . Introduced brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) occasionally browse P. excelsum, targeting young shoots and leaves, which can lead to localized dieback and reduced vigor in heavily impacted individuals. Unlike preferred browse species, P. excelsum is not a primary source for possums due to its chemical defenses, but sustained browsing contributes to broader degradation in possum-infested forests. It benefits indirectly from nutrient enrichment via decomposing forest litter. Within the food web, the leaves and berries of P. excelsum sustain diverse populations, including the C. scriptaria larvae, which in turn serve as prey for predatory and birds, supporting trophic dynamics in native woodlands. Leaf damage patterns, such as the clustered holes from looper feeding, are readily observable and indicative of these interactions.

Human uses

Traditional Māori uses

In traditional rongoā, the leaves of Piper excelsum (kawakawa) were commonly brewed into a to alleviate ailments and gastrointestinal discomforts, as well as to address and various conditions such as eczema and boils. The berries served as a and were used to treat , often consumed directly or in infusions. As part of rongoā practices, fresh or heated leaves were applied as poultices to heal wounds, bruises, and cuts, drawing out from infections and promoting skin recovery. The plant's aromatic properties, particularly from smoked or steamed leaves, were employed to ease respiratory issues like colds and chest complaints. Kawakawa branches held ritual significance in Māori ceremonies, where they were used during (welcoming rituals) to symbolize adherence to marae protocols, with the act of "tā i te kawa" literally referring to striking with a kawakawa branch. In (funerals), pare kawakawa—wreaths of leaves—were worn on the head by mourners and placed on graves to honor the deceased. The plant also featured in daily life for its peppery flavor, with leaves and seeds dried and used as a for foods, while the ripe berries were eaten for their mildly spicy taste; however, there is no recorded evidence of kawakawa being used by Māori for intoxicating or sedative purposes akin to .

Modern medicinal and culinary applications

In recent pharmacological research, kawakawa (Piper excelsum) tea has demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects through a 2024 randomized controlled trial involving 26 healthy volunteers, where acute intake significantly reduced gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 (p = 0.01) and IL-8 (p = 0.03), alongside modulation of nine miRNAs associated with inflammation pathways such as cytokine signaling and apoptosis. Additionally, a 2022 LC-MS/MS analysis of kawakawa leaf extracts identified 64 bioactive compounds, including the TRPV1 agonist pellitorine, supporting its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential by influencing gene expressions like IL-6 and NF-κB in human cells. Commercial products featuring kawakawa have gained popularity in New Zealand for modern medicinal applications, including herbal teas for digestive and anti-inflammatory support, balms and ointments for soothing eczema and arthritis-related inflammation, and skincare formulations leveraging its and properties. In culinary contexts, kawakawa leaves and berries serve as a native pepper substitute in , imparting a warm, peppery flavor to teas, chutneys, and savory dishes due to compounds like pellitorine. Regarding safety and efficacy, kawakawa exhibits low , with human and animal studies confirming the safety of preparations at typical doses (e.g., 4 g dried leaves), and no adverse events reported in data up to 2020. Registered clinical trials, including one from 2022, continue to explore its therapeutic potential for anti-diabetic and anti-inflammatory applications. As of October 2025, researchers are co-designing clinical trials with Rongoā practitioners to evaluate kawakawa's potential for treating chronic inflammatory conditions such as eczema.

Cultural significance

Role in Māori traditions

In Māori traditions, Piper excelsum, known as kawakawa, holds profound symbolic value representing welcome and hospitality during ceremonial greetings on the . Hosts often wave kawakawa leaves as part of the process to greet visitors, embodying (love and compassion) and signaling a safe passage onto sacred grounds, particularly during significant events like tangi. This practice underscores the plant's role in facilitating connections between people and their ancestors, with leaves sometimes offered in rituals to invoke protection and continuity of (genealogy). During tangi (funerals), kawakawa branches and foliage are integral to mourning customs, symbolizing loss, respect, and remembrance for the deceased. Mourners, especially women, wear pare kawakawa—wreaths crafted from the plant's leaves—as a visible emblem of , a tikanga (custom) observed across many that persists in contemporary practices. Leaves may also be placed on gravesites to honor the deceased and signify respect. Mythologically, kawakawa is linked to , the (god) of forests, through oral traditions and that trace its origins to his domain in Te Wao Nui a . Stories recount creating kawakawa to heal Papatūānuku's broken heart after her separation from Ranginui, with the heart-shaped leaves symbolizing this act of restoration and embedding it in narratives of creation and resilience within te ao Māori (the Māori world). In contemporary Māori culture, kawakawa's symbolic essence is experiencing revival through integration into arts and exhibitions, reaffirming amid modernization. Artists incorporate kawakawa motifs in exhibitions and carvings to evoke themes of and heritage, as seen in displays celebrating native flora's cultural depth.

Relationship with kava

Piper excelsum and Piper methysticum both belong to the family and share several botanical features, including aromatic, heart-shaped leaves and spike-like inflorescences bearing unisexual flowers. These shrubs exhibit similar dioecious reproductive structures and overall morphology adapted to subtropical and temperate island environments in the Pacific, with kawakawa reaching up to 6 meters in height and typically 3-4 meters. Such parallels in form likely stem from their shared evolutionary lineage within the genus Piper, distributed across Pacific islands. Chemically, the two species overlap in some compound classes typical of , such as amides (e.g., ) and phenylpropanoids, but differ markedly in key actives. Piper methysticum contains high concentrations of , including and yangonin, primarily in its roots, which contribute to its pharmacological profile. In contrast, Piper excelsum leaves feature phenylpropanoids like and elemicin, along with amides and , but no significant have been identified. This absence explains why kawakawa lacks the strong psychoactive properties of . The naming of Piper excelsum as kawakawa in Māori reflects linguistic ties to kava, derived from Proto-Oceanic *kawa, denoting bitter or intoxicating plants with special properties. This connection arose from early Polynesian voyagers recognizing morphological and gustatory resemblances to Piper methysticum, despite New Zealand's cooler climate preventing kava cultivation. European botanists in the further emphasized this similarity in their descriptions, reinforcing the comparative nomenclature without implying direct equivalence. Culturally, Piper methysticum serves as a in Pacific rituals and social contexts, where root preparations induce relaxation and euphoria through its . Piper excelsum, however, is valued mainly for medicinal and bittering applications, such as teas for effects, owing to its non-psychoactive chemistry. These differences underscore distinct traditional roles, with central to ceremonial intoxication and kawakawa focused on therapeutic uses.

Conservation

Status and threats

Piper excelsum reflects its widespread distribution in and the Pacific. Within , the nominate subspecies P. e. subsp. excelsum is classified as Not Threatened under the (NZTCS) 2023, with a stable population across its core range. However, the species exhibits regional variation, with populations in the margins—particularly around —considered locally vulnerable due to habitat constraints and frost limitations. Other , including P. e. subsp. delangei, peltatum, and psittacorum, are rated as Naturally Uncommon under NZTCS, owing to their sparse or restricted distributions on offshore islands and northern regions. Key threats to Piper excelsum encompass habitat loss from and , which fragment coastal and lowland forests where the plant thrives as an species. Invasive brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) exert substantial pressure through browsing on leaves and young shoots, contributing to foliage damage and reduced regeneration in affected areas; possums are a pervasive threat to New Zealand's native , consuming up to 20% of canopy foliage in some forests. poses additional risks, particularly to southern stands, by altering regimes—P. excelsum is highly frost-sensitive and intolerant of temperatures below -5°C, potentially leading to range contraction if events intensify or expansion if warming predominates, alongside habitat shifts from changing patterns. Populations of Piper excelsum are abundant in the , comprising millions of individuals in lowland podocarp-broadleaf forests from Northland to , where it forms a dominant element. In the , numbers are significantly lower and declining in isolated remnants, limited to frost-free coastal sites near Nelson and , with ongoing habitat loss exacerbating fragmentation. Overall, no species-wide decline is documented, but localized pressures could impact vulnerable southern and island subpopulations without intervention. As an indigenous vascular plant, Piper excelsum receives protection under the Native Plants Protection Act 1934, which prohibits unauthorized collection from lands, public reserves, or state forests. Harvesting on Department of Conservation-managed lands requires permits to ensure sustainability, with commercial extraction further regulated under the Forests Act 1949 for native timber. Customary practices are accommodated through DOC guidelines, allowing limited take for cultural and medicinal purposes while prioritizing population health.

Cultivation and propagation

Piper excelsum, commonly known as kawakawa, can be propagated effectively from fresh or semi-hardwood cuttings to support cultivation or restoration efforts. For seed propagation, collect ripe berries in late summer, wash off the fleshy pulp to prevent fungal issues, and sow the cleaned directly onto a firm bed of seed-raising mix, covering lightly with additional mix or fine ; germination typically occurs within 4-6 weeks under warm conditions (around 20-25°C) or up to 5 months in cooler temperatures (10-15°C), with seedlings requiring consistent moisture but not waterlogging. Alternatively, semi-hardwood cuttings taken in spring or early summer provide a reliable method: select healthy stems, strip the lower leaves, dip the cut end in rooting hormone, and plant into a moist, free-draining medium under partial shade, where rooting usually establishes within 4-8 weeks. In cultivation, kawakawa thrives in partial to full shade, mimicking its natural , and requires free-draining, moist soil with a slightly acidic to neutral of 6.0-7.5 to support healthy root development. Plant in spring after risk has passed, spacing individuals 1.8-2.4 meters apart for hedges or naturalized plantings to allow for its mature height of 3-6 meters and dense branching habit; water regularly during establishment to maintain even soil moisture, though mature plants tolerate short dry periods once rooted. Young plants are frost-sensitive and benefit from protection in colder regions, while mature specimens handle light frosts and moderate wind. Common pests include looper moth caterpillars (Cleora scriptaria), which create characteristic 'bullet holes' in leaves but are generally beneficial in garden settings as they serve as a food source for native birds like and ; monitor and tolerate moderate damage unless severe. Other potential issues involve from overly wet, poorly drained soils, which can be prevented by ensuring proper site preparation and avoiding overwatering, particularly in heavy clay conditions. Beetles and general caterpillars may occasionally nibble foliage, but kawakawa's resilience often limits significant impact without intervention. Sustainable management emphasizes propagation from cultivated stock to minimize harvesting pressure on wild populations, aligning with guidelines from the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network that promote ethical sourcing for commercial or large-scale production through nurseries rather than direct wild collection. In restoration contexts, sourcing or cuttings from local ecotypes helps preserve while addressing threats from overharvesting.

References

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  51. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/23/5168
  52. https://www.pharmacytoday.co.nz/article/educate/natural-health/kawakawa-promising-new-zealand-native-plant
  53. https://meaningoftrees.com/2020/05/22/kawakawa-piper-excelsum/
  54. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/8/1638
  55. https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=384193
  56. https://frankieapothecary.co.nz/blogs/news/why-we-chose-kawakawa-as-our-eczema-care-hero
  57. https://triumphanddisaster.ca/pages/the-science-of-nature-kawakawa-piper-excelsum
  58. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46157208_Parekawakawa_He_tohu_o_te_mate
  59. https://maoridictionary.co.nz/search?keywords=pare%20kawakawa
  60. https://www.facebook.com/hopefuneral/posts/-kawakawa-rosemary-symbols-of-remembrance-did-you-know-that-rosemary-and-kawakaw/1163311682470848/
  61. https://teara.govt.nz/en/amoeba/id/1966/plants-as-symbols
  62. https://newsline.ccc.govt.nz/news/story/draft
  63. https://www.britannica.com/plant/Piper-methysticum
  64. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/piper-methysticum
  65. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/404899-Piper-excelsum
  66. https://www.doc.govt.nz/globalassets/documents/science-and-technical/nztcs43entire.pdf
  67. https://mro.massey.ac.nz/bitstreams/d2607d5c-89c4-445b-8d05-d2795bc6f3df/download
  68. https://www.visitzealandia.com/learn/nature-and-wildlife/plants/kawakawa/
  69. https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1934/0015/latest/whole.html
  70. https://www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/getting-involved/nz-conservation-authority-and-boards/nz-conservation-authority/maori-customary.PDF
  71. https://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/environment/biodiversity/use-and-harvest/
  72. https://www.doc.govt.nz/get-involved/conservation-activities/collect-seeds-and-propagate-native-trees-and-shrubs/
  73. https://www.picturethisai.com/ask/Macropiper_excelsum_subsp._excelsum-3.html
  74. https://davesgarden.com/guides/pf/go/84391/
  75. https://www.zones.co.nz/articles/kawakawa-planting-and-care-instructions
  76. https://www.picturethisai.com/flower-problems/Macropiper_excelsum_subsp._excelsum.html
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