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Locomotive frame

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A locomotive frame is the structure that forms the backbone of the railway locomotive, giving it strength and supporting the superstructure elements such as a cab, boiler or bodywork. The vast majority of locomotives have had a frame structure of some kind. The frame may in turn be supported by axles directly attached to it, or it may be mounted on bogies (known as trucks in American English), or a combination of the two. The bogies in turn will have frames of their own.

Types of frame

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Preserved GWR 9017 showing outside frames

Three main types of frame on steam locomotives may be distinguished:^[1]

Plate frames

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These used steel plates about 1–2 in (25.4–50.8 mm) thick. They were mainly used in Britain and continental Europe. On most locomotives, the frames would be situated within the driving wheels ("inside frames"), but some classes of an early steam locomotive and diesel shunters were constructed with "outside frames". Some early designs were double framed where the frame consisted of plates both inside and outside the driving wheels. Others were sandwich frames where the frame was constructed of wood sandwiched between two metal plates.

Bar frames

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These are openwork girder structures built up from steel or iron bars which are usually 4–7 in (100–180 mm) thick, welded into a single load-bearing assembly. They were first used on the Bury Bar Frame locomotive during the 1830s, and were widely used in nineteenth century American locomotives (including those exported to Australia and New Zealand; see Vogel railways).

Cast steel beds

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Cast steel locomotive beds were developed in the latter years of steam locomotive design in the United States, from where they were also exported to Britain and Australia.

Articulated locomotives

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An articulated locomotive with no fixed wheels (i.e. excluding the Mallet locomotive but including other articulated steam locomotives, as well as most diesel and electric locomotives) may have a separate frame beneath the superstructure, or the bodywork's internal structure may be load-bearing. Rarely is a true monocoque structure used.

Diesel and electric locomotives with a traditional, full-width body, known as cab units in North America, tend to have their strength in an internal structure. This style of construction is still popular elsewhere, but North American locomotives nowadays are overwhelmingly hood units—with a strong frame beneath the superstructure that carries all the load, and bodywork made of removable panels for easy maintenance. Fully enclosed locomotives are used in some limited applications, mostly for passenger trains. These tend to be cowl units, in which the body is not load-bearing.

References

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Locomotive frames.

^ Ransome-Wallis, P. (1959). Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Railway Locomotives (2001 republication ed.). Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-41247-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help), p 255.

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The locomotive frame serves as the structural backbone of a railway locomotive, providing essential support for the superstructure—including the boiler in steam designs, diesel engine in modern variants, cab, and other components—while ensuring rigidity, transferring operational forces to the axles and wheels, and absorbing impacts from track irregularities.^[1]^[2] Typically constructed from high-strength steel plates or bars, with thicknesses ranging from 1 to 2 inches and depths of 2 to 3 feet in traditional designs, the frame consists of two parallel main members connected by cross-bracings to maintain precise alignment and withstand static vertical loads, longitudinal traction forces, lateral forces, and dynamic fatigue stresses.^[1]^[2] Historically, steam locomotive frames evolved through several types to balance strength, weight, and manufacturability. Plate frames, prevalent in British and European locomotives, are fabricated from rolled steel plates riveted or welded together, often positioned inside or outside the driving wheels for optimal clearance and support.^[2] Bar frames, commonly used in American designs from the 1830s onward, employ two parallel steel bars (4 to 7 inches thick) connected by transverse members, offering greater stiffness for high-power engines but requiring more complex assembly.^[2] Later innovations included cast steel frames, developed in the late steam era, which integrated the frame and cylinders into a single monolithic casting for enhanced durability and reduced vibration, particularly in exported models to regions like Britain and Australia.^[3] In some early configurations, double or sandwich frames layered plates for added reinforcement against torsional loads.^[3] In modern diesel-electric locomotives, the frame—often termed the underframe—adapts these principles to support heavier diesel engines, generators, and fuel systems, with designs emphasizing strength, crash energy management, and integration with bogies.^[4]^[5] Materials have advanced to include high-strength steels with fatigue safety factors of at least 2.0 and aluminum alloys (safety factor ≥2.2) to optimize weight while meeting standards like EN 12663 for load-bearing integrity.^[1] These frames must endure extreme conditions, including up to 10 million fatigue cycles in bogie components, ensuring safety, efficiency, and longevity in high-speed freight and passenger services.^[1] Ongoing engineering focuses on universal modular designs using systems methods to streamline production and maintenance across locomotive variants.^[6]

Historical development

Origins in early locomotives

The origins of the locomotive frame trace back to the pioneering work of Richard Trevithick, who constructed the world's first practical steam locomotive in 1804 for the Penydarren Ironworks in Wales. This unnamed engine featured a simple frame made of flat wrought iron bars measuring 3 inches by 1 inch, with stayed cross members positioned near the ends to support coupling rods and axles. The lightweight design primarily served to mount the four cast-iron wheels, position the horizontal cylinder recessed into the boiler, and transmit tractive effort from the piston to the driving wheels via a crankshaft, pinions, and gears on one side, all without advanced joining techniques like welding—instead relying on basic bolting and riveting for assembly.^[7] This structure marked a foundational shift from earlier stationary steam engines, enabling mobile rail traction while enduring the vibrations and heat of operation, though the frame's slight build limited it to hauling about 10 tons at 4-5 mph over short distances on cast-iron plateways.^[7] Early prototypes initially incorporated wooden elements in their frames, often as built-up structures reinforced with wrought iron flitch plates to provide basic rigidity and support for the boiler and cylinders. These hybrid wooden-iron frames addressed the limitations of pure wood, which proved insufficient against the intense heat from the firebox and mechanical stresses from motion, prompting a rapid transition to predominantly wrought iron constructions for greater durability in operational environments. By providing a stable platform for axle mounting and load-bearing, these primitive frames fulfilled essential functions such as supporting the firebox-integrated boiler and channeling tractive forces, though they lacked springs or sophisticated braking systems found in later developments.^[8] A pivotal advancement came with George Stephenson's "Rocket" in 1829, built for the Rainhill Trials on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which utilized timber-reinforced wrought iron bar frames to carry the boiler directly. The frame consisted of wrought iron bars for the portions supporting the boiler and firebox, combined with timber elements connecting the wheels, forming a composite structure that enhanced strength while allowing for the engine's innovative multi-tubular boiler and inclined cylinders connected directly to the driving axles. This design transmitted tractive effort efficiently, enabling speeds up to 24 mph and demonstrating the frame's role in integrating key components without rigid boiler-frame connections that could cause expansion issues. The Rocket's frame set a precedent for subsequent locomotives, briefly paving the way for later shifts toward steel-based materials in the mid-19th century.^[9]^[8]

Evolution in the 19th and 20th centuries

In the 1830s, Robert Stephenson pioneered the use of wrought iron bar frames for steam locomotives, marking a significant advancement over earlier wooden constructions. This design, exemplified by the Planet class locomotives built for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway starting in 1830, positioned the cylinders inside the frame, allowing for more robust and larger engines capable of hauling heavier passenger and freight loads on the world's first inter-city railway. The wrought iron bar frame provided sufficient rigidity and strength to support expanded boiler sizes and higher speeds, facilitating the rapid growth of rail networks.^[10]^[11] The mid-19th century saw a pivotal shift from wrought iron to mild steel for locomotive components, driven by the Bessemer process introduced in 1856, which enabled mass production of affordable steel with enhanced properties. By the 1860s and 1870s, American manufacturers like Baldwin Locomotive Works adopted steel for tires, fireboxes, and boilers, improving tensile strength from approximately 25,000 psi in wrought iron to 30,000–40,000 psi in early mild steel. The transition to steel frames occurred later, with cast steel frames introduced by Baldwin in 1887, supporting the demands of expanding rail systems and becoming standard by the late 19th century for better resistance to fatigue and impact. The Siemens-Martin open-hearth process, developed in the 1860s, further improved steel quality for such applications.^[11]^[12] Railway expansion in the late 19th century influenced frame designs regionally: in the United States, heavier wrought iron and later steel bar frames were favored for powerful freight haulers, such as the Consolidation types built in the 1880s for lines like the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, to handle massive ore and coal loads. In contrast, European engineers emphasized lighter plate frames for efficiency on denser passenger networks, as seen in designs for railways in Russia and South Africa during the same era.^[11] Entering the 20th century, innovations like electric arc welding, developed in the early 1900s, enabled the fabrication of more integrated steel frames with fewer joints, improving structural integrity particularly for diesel-electric locomotives. Post-World War II, the rise of diesel-electric locomotives prompted adaptations toward modular frame designs, as in the Electro-Motive Division's 567 series engines from the late 1940s, which featured standardized, interchangeable components for easier maintenance and scalability in freight and passenger service.^[11]^[13]

Frame types

Bar frames

Bar frames, also known as bar-type or wood-and-bar frames in early variants, were constructed from two parallel vertical rolled steel bars serving as the primary longitudinal members of the locomotive chassis. These bars, typically measuring 4 to 7 inches in thickness, were spaced approximately 30 to 36 inches apart to accommodate the axle assemblies and were securely riveted to transverse cross members, such as buffer beams and cylinder saddles, forming a rigid open structure. Hornblocks, integral castings or forgings attached to the bars, provided guidance for the axleboxes, allowing vertical movement while constraining lateral play to ensure wheelset alignment under load.^[14]^[8] This design gained historical prominence in the United States starting from the 1830s, with early adoption by builders like the Norris Locomotive Works in Philadelphia, which produced nearly 1,000 engines featuring bar frames between 1832 and 1866. Norris locomotives, such as the 1837 Lafayette with its interior bar frame supporting distributed weight over the drivers, exemplified the type's early success and were exported to Europe, including 4-2-0 models sent to England in 1842 for challenging inclines like the Lickey Incline. The open structure of bar frames proved ideal for inside-cylinder arrangements, offering superior accessibility for maintenance and inspection of cylinders and motion components compared to more enclosed designs.^[15]^[8] Bar frames offered high rigidity, particularly lateral stiffness, making them well-suited for supporting heavy loads in demanding American railroading conditions, such as expansive fireboxes and large grate areas under ample loading gauges. Their modular construction facilitated ease of repair, as individual bars or sections could be replaced without dismantling the entire frame, a practical advantage in remote or high-wear environments. However, these frames were notably heavier than alternatives like plate frames, contributing to higher overall locomotive mass and reduced efficiency in fuel and speed. Additionally, the solid bar construction rendered them vulnerable to cracking under thermal stresses from the adjacent boiler, especially at joints or high-stress points near the firebox, where expansion and contraction could induce fatigue over time.^[8] A representative example is the standard bar frame employed by Baldwin Locomotive Works in their 4-4-0 "American" type locomotives, which became iconic for passenger service across North America from the mid-19th century onward. These frames robustly supported boiler weights up to approximately 50 tons (100,000 pounds), enabling the engines to haul heavy trains while maintaining stability on varied trackage, though total engine weights often reached 50 to 60 tons including the frame's contribution.^[16]^[15]

Plate frames

Plate frames consist of rolled steel plates, typically ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 inches thick, which are cut to shape and assembled into rigid box sections through riveting or welding.^[8] Inside variants position the plates within the wheels to enclose the cylinders, facilitating compact layouts, while outside variants place the plates externally to support elements like pony trucks.^[8] This construction provides a continuous structural backbone, with the plates often spaced apart by distance pieces to form a hollow girder-like profile for added depth and strength.^[2] Inside plate frames emerged as a standard in British locomotive design from the 1840s onward, particularly on the Great Western Railway (GWR), where they enabled tighter wheel arrangements suitable for the UK's loading gauge constraints.^[8] In contrast, outside plate frames gained prominence in the United States during the 1860s, offering enhanced stability for operations on broader gauges and rougher tracks.^[17] These variants evolved from earlier bar frame designs in the 19th century, transitioning to solid rolled plates as manufacturing capabilities improved.^[8] The primary advantages of plate frames include superior resistance to torsional forces due to their enclosed box structure and improved axle alignment for smoother operation at speed.^[8] However, their fabrication involves intricate cutting, fitting, and assembly of multiple plates, which historically drove up costs until electric welding techniques became widespread in the early 20th century, simplifying production and reducing material waste.^[8] A notable example is the GWR's Dean Single locomotives of the 1890s, which utilized a double-plate sandwich configuration—comprising inner and outer plates riveted to intermediate spacers—for heightened stiffness to withstand high-speed express services.

Cast frames

Cast frames, particularly cast steel beds, represent a significant advancement in locomotive design, allowing for the creation of a monolithic structure that integrates key components into a single unit. This approach was pioneered in the United States during the 1920s as part of the "Super Power" initiative to build larger, more efficient steam locomotives capable of hauling heavier trains at higher speeds. Baldwin Locomotive Works led the innovation by introducing the one-piece cast steel bed, formed by pouring molten steel into large sand molds to produce an integral casting encompassing the main frame, cylinders, and smokebox saddle. This method eliminated the need for extensive assembly of separate elements, streamlining manufacturing for complex, high-power designs.^[18]^[19] The first major adoption of cast steel frames occurred in U.S. "Super Power" locomotives, notably the New York Central Railroad's J-1 class Hudson 4-6-4s introduced in 1927. Built primarily by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO), these locomotives featured cast steel frames in later subclasses (such as J-1b and beyond), which significantly reduced the number of individual parts in the frame assembly compared to traditional built-up designs, simplifying construction and improving overall rigidity. The Hudson class exemplified the transition, with 275 units produced between 1927 and 1938, many incorporating these frames to support boiler pressures up to 225 psi and enable sustained high-speed passenger service.^[20]^[19] The primary advantages of cast frames stem from the elimination of numerous joints and riveted connections found in earlier frame types, providing superior strength capable of withstanding stresses up to 60,000 psi while distributing loads more evenly across the structure. Optimized internal shapes allowed for lighter overall weight without sacrificing durability, contributing to better fuel efficiency and reduced maintenance needs in high-mileage operations—Hudsons, for instance, often achieved 185,000 to 200,000 miles between major overhauls. However, these benefits came with drawbacks, including high upfront costs for custom molds and patterns, as well as challenges in repairing cracks or defects, which often required specialized foundry work rather than field adjustments. Steel's favorable casting properties, such as its fluidity when molten and ability to form complex geometries, made this feasible, though detailed material considerations are covered in locomotive manufacturing processes.^[18]^[19] Cast steel frames were also exported to other regions, including Britain and Australia, where they were adopted in late steam locomotives for enhanced durability and reduced vibration. A notable innovation involving cast frames emerged in the 1930s with experiments by the Timken Roller Bearing Company, which equipped its demonstrator locomotive No. 1111 (the "Four Aces," a 4-8-4 built by ALCO in 1930) with a one-piece cast steel bed to complement full roller-bearing axles. This configuration enhanced durability for intensive service, demonstrating reduced friction and wear while leveraging the frame's inherent rigidity to support the bearings' precise alignment, paving the way for broader adoption in post-Depression era locomotives.^[21]^[18]

Design and construction

Materials and manufacturing processes

The materials used in locomotive frames have evolved significantly to meet increasing demands for strength, durability, and weight reduction. In the pre-1860s era, wrought iron dominated due to its malleability and fatigue resistance, characterized by a low carbon content of less than 0.08%, which minimized brittleness but limited overall tensile strength to around 40-50 ksi.^[22] This material was produced via puddling processes that created a fibrous microstructure, enhancing toughness under dynamic rail loads.^[23] From the 1860s through the 1940s, mild steel gradually replaced wrought iron, offering improved uniformity and strength with carbon contents of 0.2-0.4% and yield strengths typically ranging from 30-50 ksi.^[24] This shift enabled more robust frames capable of supporting heavier boilers and higher speeds, as mild steel's higher ductility reduced the risk of sudden failure compared to earlier materials.^[25] By the post-1950s period, high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels emerged, incorporating elements like chromium and molybdenum to achieve yield strengths typically from 250 to 690 MPa (36-100 ksi), allowing for lighter designs without compromising structural integrity while complying with standards like EN 12663.^[26]^[1] These alloys provide enhanced resistance to fatigue and corrosion, critical for modern high-speed and freight applications. Manufacturing processes for locomotive frames have advanced from labor-intensive methods to precision techniques. In the 1830s, early frames were fabricated by forging and rolling wrought iron bars into shapes, a process that relied on hammer mills and basic rolling mills to achieve the required sectional profiles.^[27] Riveting remained prevalent up to the 1920s for joining frame elements, using hot-driven rivets to assemble plates or bars into rigid structures, though this method introduced potential weak points at joints.^[28] Electric arc welding, introduced in the 1930s, revolutionized construction by enabling seamless, high-strength joints that eliminated many rivet holes and improved overall frame rigidity.^[29] For contemporary diesel-electric locomotives, computer numerical control (CNC) machining is standard, allowing precise cutting, drilling, and milling of steel components to tight tolerances for complex geometries.^[30] Quality control in frame production emphasizes treatments and inspections to ensure reliability under severe operational stresses. Heat treatments such as normalizing, typically performed at around 900°C followed by air cooling, refine the microstructure and prevent brittleness in steel frames by relieving internal stresses from forging or welding.^[31] Non-destructive testing methods, including ultrasonic inspection, are routinely applied to detect internal cracks or voids without compromising the material, using high-frequency sound waves to identify defects as small as 1 mm in depth.^[32] In the 21st century, design and fabrication incorporate advanced computational tools and novel materials. Finite element analysis (FEA) is widely used to simulate stress distributions and optimize frame geometries, reducing material usage by up to 20% while maintaining safety margins.^[33] Additionally, modern high-speed rail vehicles, including prototypes for hybrid electric locomotives as of 2025 (e.g., CN's medium-horsepower pilot), feature composite reinforcements such as carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) in bogie frames to lighten structures and enhance energy efficiency.^[34]^[35]

Structural components and load distribution

The locomotive frame's primary structural components include longitudinal members, which form the main side plates or bars that serve as the backbone, supporting the boiler, cylinders, and running gear while transmitting forces to the wheelsets. These members are typically fabricated from high-strength steel or wrought iron to withstand compressive and tensile stresses. Transverse stretchers, positioned between the longitudinal members, provide lateral rigidity and prevent frame distortion under dynamic loads by acting as cross-braces that distribute shear forces evenly.^[36] Axle boxes and hornblocks are integral for wheelset guidance and load transfer. Axle boxes encase the axle bearings, allowing rotational movement while bearing vertical and horizontal forces from the frame; they are often designed with split configurations for maintenance access. Hornblocks, cast steel fittings bolted to the frame, constrain lateral axle movement and support vertical suspension via springs, ensuring stable wheel-rail contact during operation.^[36] Buffer beams, located at the frame's extremities, are reinforced transverse members that absorb longitudinal impact from coupling and shunting, distributing shock loads to prevent propagation into the main structure.^[36] Load distribution in the frame involves managing vertical, horizontal, and torsional forces. Vertical loads, primarily from the boiler weighing up to 80 tons when filled with water, are transferred via the saddle supports to the longitudinal members and then to the axle boxes, with distribution optimized to maintain even axle loading for stability. Horizontal tractive forces, generated by cylinder thrust, are limited by wheel-rail adhesion and calculated as

F = \mu \times N

, where

\mu

(friction coefficient) ranges from 0.2 to 0.3 under dry conditions and

N

is the normal (vertical) force on the drivers; these forces act along the frame length, resisted by stretchers and buffer beams.^[37] Torsional moments occur during curve negotiation due to yaw and lateral wheel-rail forces, twisting the frame up to several hundred kip-feet, which is countered by the rigidity of transverse stretchers and hornblock alignments. Stress analysis of the frame treats longitudinal members as simply supported beams under distributed loads, with maximum bending moment given by

M = \frac{P L}{4}

for a central point load

P

over span

L

, ensuring deflections remain within limits for track alignment. Designs incorporate safety factors of 1.5 to 2.0 against material yield strength (up to 690 MPa for high-strength frame steel) to account for fatigue and impact, as verified through finite element modeling of vertical and torsional cases and compliance with EN 12663.^[38]^[39]^[1] Vibration mitigation relies on cross-bracing within transverse stretchers to increase frame stiffness and dampers at suspension points to attenuate oscillations from wheel-rail irregularities, targeting low-frequency resonances (below 20 Hz) associated with vehicle bounce and curve-induced rocking.^[40] These measures reduce dynamic amplification, with materials selected for high damping ratios to complement the frame's inherent rigidity.^[36]

Specialized configurations

Articulated frames

Articulated frames represent a specialized configuration in locomotive design, enabling large steam engines to operate on curved tracks by incorporating flexible pivot joints between forward and rearward frame sections. This articulation allows the locomotive to maintain stability and traction while navigating bends that would challenge rigid structures. Pioneered in the Mallet type during the late 19th century, these frames connect the front and rear portions via a central hinge, often paired with equalized suspension systems to distribute weight evenly across wheel arrangements such as the 4-8-8-4, which features two sets of eight driving wheels flanked by leading trucks.^[41]^[42] A prominent historical example is the Union Pacific Big Boy, introduced in 1941, which utilized an articulated frame to achieve a tractive effort of 135,375 lbf while handling curves up to 20 degrees. This design permitted the locomotive's 72-foot-5.5-inch engine wheelbase to flex at the pivot, supporting heavy freight hauls over mountainous terrain without excessive rail wear or derailment risk. The Big Boy's frame integrated bar frame construction for the main sections, with the articulation point reinforced to withstand operational stresses during World War II-era service.^[43] The primary advantage of articulated frames lies in their ability to support extended rigid wheelbases—up to approximately 72 feet in cases like the Big Boy—while allowing the front engine unit to pivot independently, thus preventing derailments on sharp curves and enhancing overall maneuverability for high-power locomotives. However, this flexibility introduces disadvantages, including heightened mechanical complexity from the pivot assembly, which demands regular maintenance to address wear on bushings and joints, potentially increasing operational costs compared to simpler rigid designs.^[44]^[45] Mechanically, the hinge in articulated frames permits the front section to yaw relative to the rear, typically accommodating angular deviations sufficient for track curvatures up to 20 degrees by swinging around a central pin that distributes shear forces across the frame saddle. In Mallet-derived designs, this pin—often constructed from high-carbon or cast steel—is inserted through bushed holes in the frame ends, with supporting bolts ensuring load transfer and minimizing transverse movement via a radius bar brace. These components collectively enable the locomotive to balance traction and stability, though pivot wear remains a key maintenance concern due to the concentrated shear loads during operation.^[45]^[46]

Rigid and non-articulated variants

Rigid frames served as the foundational single unitary structure for the majority of steam locomotives built before the 1920s, offering a fixed and durable platform that supported the boiler, cylinders, and driving wheels without any pivoting elements. This design was prevalent in medium-sized passenger and freight engines, where the entire power assembly remained integrated on one continuous frame to ensure efficient power transmission and structural integrity. For instance, the 4-6-2 Pacific type, a staple for express passenger services from the early 1900s, employed a rigid frame with fixed driver axle spacings typically ranging from 6.5 to 7 feet, allowing balanced weight distribution across three coupled axles while maintaining overall rigidity.^[47] Duplex variants represented an evolution of the rigid frame by dividing the drive mechanism into two separate but rigidly connected sections on a single frame, addressing limitations in power delivery for larger engines. The Pennsylvania Railroad's S1 locomotive of 1939 exemplified this approach, featuring a massive one-piece cast steel frame measuring 77 feet 9.5 inches long and weighing 97,620 pounds—the largest such casting ever produced—while incorporating two sets of cylinders driving separate groups of four 84-inch wheels each. This configuration reduced hammer blow, the vertical dynamic forces exerted on the rails by unbalanced reciprocating parts, by halving the piston stroke and mass per cylinder set compared to traditional two-cylinder designs, thereby enabling higher speeds and heavier train loads without excessive track stress.^[48]^[49] The primary advantages of rigid and non-articulated frames included simpler construction through fewer moving joints and lower overall costs, making them economical for standard mainline duties on well-aligned tracks. However, these designs were inherently limited to shorter wheelbases to avoid excessive rigidity, and they proved prone to accelerated flange wear on tight curves with radii under 500 feet, where limited lateral play in the coupled wheels caused uneven contact forces between flanges and rails.^[50]^[51] Non-articulated adaptations, such as the addition of trailing trucks, enhanced stability in high-speed passenger locomotives while preserving the frame's overall rigidity. In the 4-6-2 Pacific configuration, the two-wheel trailing truck supported a larger firebox positioned behind the drivers, improving steam production for sustained high speeds up to 80-100 mph and providing better tracking on straight and gently curved mainlines without introducing articulation.^[52]^[53] Unlike articulated frames that pivoted for superior curve negotiation in rugged terrain, rigid variants excelled on level, high-speed routes but required careful track preparation to mitigate wear.^[50]

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