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Prahara is a Sanskrit term for a unit of time, or subdivision of the day, approximately three hours long.[1]

Definition

[edit]

The day is divided into eight parts: four praharas for the day, and four for the night. The first prahara of the day begins at sunrise, and the fourth prahara of the day ends at sunset. A second round of four praharas unfolds during the night, between sunset and sunrise.

The traditional system of praharas overlaps with the traditional system of muhurtas also, which is based on precise astronomical calculations.

Thus, the day can be regarded as divided into eight praharas (of three hours each) or thirty muhurtas (of 48 minutes each). In both systems, the day commences with sunrise. The timing of the two systems coincides only at sunrise and sunset (four praharas coincide with fifteen muhurtas at the twelve-hour, or 720-minute, point).

History

[edit]

In the ancient Puranas, the day is divided into eight praharas: four for the day and four for the night.[2] The concept still prevails today in India, particularly in connection with the performance of Indian classical music (see below).

Timing

[edit]

The first prahara is commonly placed at sunrise, although some sources place it at the brahma-muhurta, a period of time before sunrise (around 4.30 am when Venus can be sighted).[3]

The concept of prahar originated where the lengths of the day and night were based on actual, observable sunrise and sunset. The four praharas of the day start at sunrise, and the four praharas of the night at sunset. If the location is near the equator, where day and night are the same length year round, the praharas of the day and the praharas of the night will be of equal length (three hours each). In other regions, where the relative length of day and night varies according to the season, the praharas of the day will be longer or shorter than the praharas of the night.

Contemporary discussions of prahara often use 7:00 am (the time of sunrise at the equator and at the equinoxes) as a theoretical fixed point of reference for mapping out the praharas at three-hour intervals (7-10, 10–1, etc.). This scheme is a useful pedagogical tool and an efficient way of applying the concept of prahara in a technological "clock" culture. However, this rigid schema most likely does not capture the original application of prahara. In a traditional, non-technological culture, the length of day and night are based on observable sunrise and sunset. The day, which starts at sunrise and ends at sunset, is divided into four praharas of equal length; and, the night, which starts at sunset and ends at sunrise, is also divided into four equal watches. During the summer, when the days are longer than the nights, the praharas of the day will be longer than the praharas of the night, and vice versa during the winter.[4]

The question of how to handle the praharas when days and nights are unequal in length is critical for timing the performance of ragas, since each raga is ideally performed during a certain prahara.

Based on the contemporary operational concept of prahara based on the hour or time of day the following scheme has been in use for sometime in performing rituals in most of India east of Bengal:

  1. 1st Prahara of the Day (Brahmi Muhoorta): 3 am up to 6 am: Used for completing snaanam, Sandhyaa-Vandanam at sun-rise, and to determine tithi of the day at sunrise. Sunrises during this Prahara in almost all of the Indian subcontinent (Bharat Bhumi or Bharata Khanda). In practice, most people wake up only after 4.30 am in the morning and pursue their morning chores.
  2. 2nd Prahara of the Day (Praat: Kaala): 6 am up to 9 am: Used for performing various poojas based on the tithi of the day at sunrise.
  3. 3rd Prahara of the Day (Aparaahnam): 9 am up to 12 pm: Used for performing Apara Karmas based on the tithi of the day at Aparahnam. The time around noon and thereafter is also called Do-Pehar in Hindi and similarly in some other Indian languages because colloquially this time is considered the 2nd Prahara coming after the morning.
  4. 4th Prahara of the Day (Madhyaahnam): 12 pm up to 3 pm: Used for eating Lunch (Bhojanam) and taking rest (siesta). Most temples are usually closed during this time. The time around noon and thereafter is also called Do-Pehar in Hindi and similarly in some other Indian languages colloquially.
  5. 5th Prahara of the Day (Saayam Kaala): 3 pm to 6 pm: Used for snaanam again, followed by Sandhya-Vandanam, and performing evening poojas, aarati and other functions. Most temples re-open during this time.
  6. 6th Prahara of the Day(1st of the Night) (Ratri: 6 pm to 9 pm: Used for having dinner (or alpaahaaram aka mini dinner), and any early night functions, poojas and celebrations. Temples close by 10 pm except on some occasions like Siva-Ratri.
  7. 7th Prahara of the Day(2nd of the Night) (Ratri): 9 pm to 12 am (Ardha-Ratri): Sleep time or time for other activities. Typically, 1 am is termed Ardha-Ratri, although there is no single definition of Ardha-Ratri which is used to imply the 'middle of the night'.
  8. 8th Prahara of the Day(3rd of the Night)(Ratri): 12 am to 3 am: Sleep time.

While it is considered that there are 4 Praharas in the night, in practice with the inclusion of Brahmi Muhoorta into the Day hours, there are 5 praharas during the day and 3 during the night in contemporary life, each of 3 hours, and this seems to be the convention in practice irrespective of what the theories in books say. Besides, the sun rises before 7.00am on almost all days of the year in most of Bhaarat bhumi (Indian sub-continent) based on the Indian Standard Time (IST). Furthermore, humans who are not babies, on average, sleep for fewer hours than 12 in any given day, independent of seasons.

This is the typical schedule in the contemporary life of people in India (Bharat) subject to the length of the day as per season. Everyone is not required to follow this scheme and many do not. Also, some people may skip certain rituals or perform other activities as is suitable for them. Brahmi Muhoorta is considered the time the gods/devas appear to bless humans, and hence a special significance is attached to this prahara before sunrise. People from the north-east of India start their day much earlier because sun rises in those parts as early as 4.30am IST and sets as early as 5pm IST in some seasons, however, this does not contradict the contemporary operational scheme in practice.

Indian classical music

[edit]

Some ragas of the Indian classical music are prescribed to be performed at a particular prahara to maximize their aesthetic effects (see samayā). Perhaps the earliest mention of the relation between raga and time is Narada's Sangita Makaranda, written sometime between the 7th and 11th century, which warns musicians against playing ragas at the incorrect time of day.[5] Pandit V.N. Bhatkhande (1860-1936), who formulated the modern system of Indian musical thāt, states that the correct time (or prahara) to play a raga has a relation to its thāt.[6]

Modern etymology and usage

[edit]

The word is commonly used in India, Pakistan, Nepal is prahar (Hindi/Nepali प्रहर, Urduپہر), more commonly pronounced paher or peher and in West Bengal and Bangladesh is prohor (Bengali প্রহর) in Marathi it is pronounced as Prahar (प्रहर). In Hindi and Urdu the word for "afternoon" is dopahar (= two prahars).[7] In Bengali the corresponding word is dui-pôhor or more commonly dupur. In Marathi, afternoon is Dupaar with same etymology as in Hindi. It is known as Paar in, Konkani, where First Prahara is known as Faantya Paar (from Sanskrit, प्रातः प्रहर), and afternoon is known as Donpaar.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Prahara

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from Grokipedia
Prahara is a term primarily denoting a traditional in Indian culture, typically lasting about three hours but varying by season and location as it divides the daylight (from sunrise to sunset) and night (from sunset to sunrise) into four equal parts each. The first prahara commences at sunrise and the fourth concludes at sunset, followed by four nocturnal praharas. In (Jyotisha), each prahara is associated with planetary influences, such as the Sun governing the first daytime segment, aiding in the timing of rituals and daily activities. Beyond its temporal significance, prahara also carries connotations of "striking," "blow," or "thrust," particularly in epic literature like the , where it describes combat actions, such as in battles between gods and demons in the Śivapurāṇa. In the , as outlined in the Nāṭyaśāstra, prahara refers to specific handstroke techniques on , forming a foundational set of three rhythmic rules essential to classical Indian and . This multifaceted usage underscores prahara's role in ancient Indian systems of timekeeping, warfare narratives, and artistic expression, reflecting a holistic integration of time, action, and rhythm in Vedic traditions.

Fundamentals

Definition

A prahara is a term denoting a fixed in traditional Indian temporal systems, equivalent to approximately three hours and constituting one-eighth of a 24-hour day. This division allows for a structured segmentation of the daily cycle into manageable periods, often aligned with natural light variations. The eight praharas collectively encompass the full diurnal cycle, spanning from dawn to dawn, with each prahara functioning as a distinct "watch" or vigil period used for organizing activities and observances. These periods provide a practical framework for timekeeping in pre-modern contexts, where solar observations guided the progression. The division of praharas is typically reckoned from sunrise. Prahara occupies an intermediate position in the hierarchy of traditional Indian time units, larger than the smaller , which measures 48 minutes, and equivalent to the , another three-hour division often used interchangeably. This positioning underscores prahara's role as a balanced for daily scheduling, bridging finer granularities with broader temporal spans.

Etymology

The term prahara originates from the pra-hṛ, where pra- denotes "forth" or "forward" and the hṛ means "to take," "to seize," or "to strike," yielding a literal sense of "striking forth" or "seizing a portion." This etymological foundation evokes the idea of marking or capturing a segment of time, akin to a on a gong or drum to signal its passage. In Vedic literature, prahara and its verbal forms primarily connote a blow or , extending metaphorically to a watch or guard shift—a period of or vigilance that predates its adoption in astronomical contexts. Such usages appear in early texts to describe shifts of oversight, reflecting the term's initial association with timed human activity rather than celestial measurement. Transliteration variations include prahāra (with a long ā) and prahar, while cognates appear in dialects as similar compounds denoting strikes or divisions, and in modern as prahar, retaining the core sense of a delimited interval. This linguistic evolution underscores prahara's adaptability across , though its temporal specificity emerged later in classical .

Historical Development

Origins in Ancient Indian Texts

The concept of prahara as a unit of time division emerged in ancient Indian astronomical and literary traditions as part of a solar-based reckoning system, where the day was subdivided into periods to facilitate practical timekeeping for rituals and daily activities. Early Jyotisha texts, such as the (c. 1400–1200 BCE), lay the foundation for measurement by aligning calendrical cycles with the sun's position and dividing the day into muhurtas (30 per day, each approximately 48 minutes) and ghatis, though prahara as an explicit eight-part division developed in later periods. This text integrates such divisions within a broader framework of solar years and seasonal adjustments, emphasizing the sun's role in determining day length variations. In the great epics, prahara gains practical integration as a temporal marker for events, rituals, and battles, illustrating its early adoption in cultural and religious contexts. The employs prahara to denote time progression during the , such as when battles are described as lasting multiple praharas, with warriors fighting from the first prahara of the day until dusk, highlighting its use for sequencing intense activities under . Similarly, the uses prahara to structure key episodes, like Rama's exile journeys or combat scenes in , where actions are timed to specific praharas to underscore auspiciousness or urgency in ritualistic settings. These mentions, dating to compositions around 400 BCE–400 CE, demonstrate prahara's role in embedding time reckoning into epic and frameworks. Astronomical treatises like the (c. 400–500 CE) refine time units such as civil days from sunrise to sunrise and subdivisions into nadis (24 minutes) within integrated systems of (lunar days) and (lunar mansions), using solar observations for predictive calculations in eclipse and planetary computations. This conceptual foundation in classical Hindu astronomy contributed to the broader evolution of standardized day divisions, including the later eight-prahara structure rooted in Vedic solar principles.

Evolution Through Medieval Periods

During the medieval period, spanning roughly from the 5th to the CE, the concept of prahara underwent significant refinements in Indian astronomical and astrological scholarship, particularly within the Jyotisha tradition. Varahamihira's Brihat Samhita, composed in the CE during the , integrated prahara divisions with seasonal adjustments to enhance predictive accuracy in meteorological and agricultural contexts. The text delineates the day and night into eight praharas, each approximately three hours long, and links their timing to lunar positions and monsoon cycles; for instance, clockwise wind movements during specific praharas in the rainy season (such as the fourth prahara from 3 to 6 p.m. in of Bhadrapada) were interpreted as indicators of prosperity and ample rainfall. These adjustments accounted for variations in daylight length across seasons, aligning prahara with solsticial and equinoctial shifts to support practical applications in calendrical computations. The eight-prahara system gained prominence in temple rituals and panchanga almanacs during medieval periods, serving as a framework for scheduling religious observances across . In medieval texts, prahara divisions were used to synchronize daily worship with astronomical events, ensuring rituals like dawn offerings occurred in the first daytime prahara. This system became embedded in temple practices, with almanacs prescribing prahara-based timings for festivals and processions in major Shaivite and Vaishnavite temples. Panchangas, compiled by court astronomers, incorporated these divisions to guide priests in aligning ceremonies with solar transits and lunar phases, thereby standardizing religious life. The prahara system adapted to local calendrical preferences in medieval , reflecting broader influences between solar and lunar systems. These adaptations ensured the system's flexibility while maintaining its core role in cultural and astronomical continuity.

The Prahara Time System

Division and

The traditional Prahara system divides the 24-hour day into eight equal periods, known as praharas, each lasting approximately three hours. This provides a rhythmic framework for daily life in ancient Indian traditions, with the first prahara commencing at sunrise, typically around 6 AM in equatorial regions. The divisions are named based on their position relative to key times like dawn, noon, and , reflecting a solar-based reckoning that aligns with natural cycles. While the standard model assumes fixed three-hour intervals for simplicity, actual durations can adjust slightly based on seasonal variations in day length, particularly distinguishing between equatorial (consistent 12-hour days) and tropical latitudes (varying daylight hours). The daytime praharas encompass four segments from sunrise to sunset: Purvaahna (dawn to mid-morning, approximately 6 AM to 9 AM), associated with awakening and initial activities; Madhyahna (mid-morning to noon, 9 AM to 12 PM), focused on peak productivity; Aparahna (noon to mid-afternoon, 12 PM to 3 PM), for continued endeavors; and Sayahna (mid-afternoon to evening, 3 PM to 6 PM), marking the wind-down of daily tasks. These morning and daytime periods are thematically linked to vitality, labor, and veneration of solar deities such as . The nighttime praharas cover the remaining four segments from sunset to the next sunrise: or (early evening to night, approximately 6 PM to 9 PM), for repose and light reflection; Nishitha or Madhya-ratri (late evening to midnight, 9 PM to 12 AM), centered on deep rest; Triyama (midnight to pre-dawn, 12 AM to 3 AM), for quiet introspection; and Ushah (late night to dawn, 3 AM to 6 AM), transitioning into renewal. The final segment often overlaps with Brahma-muhurta, an auspicious pre-dawn interval (roughly 4:30 AM to 5:30 AM) revered for and spiritual preparation, emphasizing themes of restoration and inner practices, including tantric observances in certain traditions. Nighttime praharas generally evoke rest, contemplation, and esoteric pursuits, contrasting the active daytime energies.

Calculation Methods and Variations

The basic method for calculating prahara timings in traditional involves determining local sunrise and sunset times, then dividing the daytime interval (from sunrise to sunset) into four equal daytime praharas and the nighttime interval (from sunset to the following sunrise) into four equal nighttime praharas, resulting in eight praharas over a full day-night cycle. This approach uses , with each prahara expressed in ghatikas—a fixed unit of 24 minutes derived from water clocks ( or ghatika yantras)—where the total day-night spans 60 ghatikas, but the allocation between day and night varies seasonally. On days at the , each prahara measures exactly 7.5 ghatikas (3 hours), providing a baseline for adjustments. Variations in prahara calculation arise from differing interpretations in astronomical treatises, particularly between fixed and variable systems. In the fixed system, each prahara is uniformly set at 3 hours (7.5 ghatikas) regardless of daylight length, simplifying practical use but ignoring solar variations; this approximation is common in ritual contexts for consistency across locations. Conversely, the variable system, emphasized in texts like the , proportions praharas to actual daylight, with daytime praharas lengthened in summer (up to about 13.5 hours total daylight at 25°N , yielding 3.375 hours per prahara) and shortened in winter (down to 10.5 hours total, or 2.625 hours per prahara), while nighttime praharas adjust inversely. The Siddhanta Shiromani by Bhaskara II addresses latitudinal shifts, incorporating the observer's (typically 15°–35°N for Indian sites) into sunrise computations via to account for equatorial uniformity versus polar deviations, ensuring accurate solar positioning. Traditional tools for prahara computation relied on the (shanku), a vertical rod whose shadow length at noon or during the day helped measure local and verify against predicted declinations from siddhantas. For instance, at latitudes around 20°N (common in ), observations calibrate seasonal daylight to divide praharas precisely, often cross-checked with clepsydras for subdivisions into palas (24 seconds). Modern approximations employ panchanga software, which implements algorithms from texts like the and Siddhanta Shiromani, using ephemerides and GPS for location-specific (e.g., adjusting for 23.5° and of about 0.83°), yielding prahara starts within seconds of traditional methods for Indian latitudes.

Applications and Significance

In Traditional Timekeeping and Rituals

In traditional Indian society, the prahara system structured daily routines as outlined in Ayurvedic texts such as the , emphasizing alignment with natural rhythms to maintain health and balance. Bathing, or snana, was typically recommended during the first prahara of the day (approximately 6–9 a.m.), following sunrise, to cleanse the body and prepare for the day's activities, as this period supports vitality and prevents lethargy. Meals were scheduled precisely within prahara divisions: the morning meal at about 1¼ prahara after sunrise (around 9 a.m.) to avoid digestive disturbances like rasodvega, the main afternoon meal between the second and third praharas (approximately 9 a.m.–3 p.m.), particularly around midday, to preserve strength and aid digestion, and the evening meal within the first prahara of the night (sunset to around 9 p.m.), with lighter portions to promote restful sleep. Dharmashastra texts, such as the , reinforced these timings by integrating them into ethical conduct, prescribing ablutions and simple meals during daytime praharas to uphold purity and discipline. Prahara divisions held profound ritual significance, guiding the selection of auspicious moments for ceremonies through their subdivision into muhurtas (48-minute units), ensuring harmony with cosmic influences. Evening praharas, particularly the first of the night (post-sunset), were deemed ideal for puja and festivals, as they coincide with pradosha kaal, a time of transition fostering prosperity and protection; for instance, Lakshmi worship during Diwali rituals is performed in this period to invoke wealth and abundance. Weddings and other samskaras were timed to avoid inauspicious praharas, favoring those with benefic muhurtas like abhijit (midday, during the third prahara) for stability and joy. These practices, rooted in Vedic traditions, linked prahara timings to tithi and planetary positions, transforming routine observances into spiritually potent acts. Astrologically, praharas integrated into muhurta shastra—the science of electional timing—for planning life events, where each prahara's subdivisions into muhurtas were evaluated against the panchanga (almanac) to mitigate malefic effects and amplify positives. In horoscope interpretation, the prahara at birth influenced natal charts by denoting the ruling planetary hour (hora), affecting temperament and destiny as per texts like Muhurta Chintamani. For event selection, such as journeys or initiations, astrologers avoided bhadra overlaps in certain praharas (e.g., the tail of bhadra in the second or fifth) to ensure success, while favoring those aligned with benefic lords. This framework, emphasizing prahara's role in synchronizing human endeavors with celestial rhythms, underscored its utility in muhurta for weddings, housewarmings, and rituals.

In Indian Classical Music

In Indian classical music, particularly within the Hindustani tradition, the prahara system governs the performance of ragas according to specific times of day, ensuring their emotional essence, or rasa, aligns with natural rhythms and human experiences. This time-of-day theory posits that each raga evokes a particular mood more effectively when rendered during its designated prahar, drawing from the belief that musical notes resonate with cosmic and diurnal energies. While Carnatic music incorporates seasonal and temporal elements to a lesser extent, the concept is most rigidly observed in Hindustani practices, where adherence enhances the listener's aesthetic and spiritual immersion. The Ashta Prahar framework divides the 24-hour cycle into eight three-hour periods—four for daytime and four for nighttime—each prescribing suitable ragas to capture the prevailing rasa. Rooted in medieval treatises like the Sangita Makaranda attributed to (circa 7th–9th century, with later influences in texts such as the 13th–15th century Sangitamakaranda), this system classifies ragas based on their dominant notes (vadi and samvadi) and melodic structure, linking them to times that amplify their inherent sentiments, such as devotion in dawn or melancholy at . Specific raga assignments reflect these temporal-emotional correspondences. For the first morning prahar (approximately 6–9 a.m.), ragas like Bhairav are performed, evoking bhakti (devotion) and calm introspection suited to sunrise, with its flat third and seventh notes mirroring the awakening light. In the evening prahars (around 6–9 p.m.), Yaman Kalyan unfolds with ascending optimism and romantic yearning (shringara rasa), its bright major scale complementing twilight's transition. Nighttime prahars, particularly the third (midnight to 3 a.m.), feature Malkauns, a pentatonic raga inducing karuna (pathos) and mystical depth, its somber tones aligning with nocturnal solitude for profound emotional release. These choices stem from the texts' emphasis on how time synchronizes the raga's rasa with environmental and physiological states, fostering deeper catharsis. Historically, prahara adherence was rigorously enforced in performances and lineages, such as the or Kirana schools, where musicians structured entire repertoires around these slots to honor patronage traditions and preserve musical purity. In Mughal-era darbars, deviations were rare, as they risked diminishing the raga's evocative power—performers like reportedly selected ragas precisely for their temporal fit to captivate audiences. Violations, known as bewaqt ki ragini (out-of-time melody), were critiqued for disrupting rasa, leading to aesthetic dissonance; for example, rendering Bhairav at night might evoke unease rather than serenity, undermining the intended spiritual harmony and potentially offending connoisseurs. This discipline reinforced the gharanas' stylistic integrity, ensuring ragas retained their timeless, context-bound potency.

Modern Usage

Contemporary Practices

In contemporary and practices, the prahara system is integrated into dinacharya (daily routines) to align activities with natural circadian rhythms, promoting holistic wellness. Practitioners recommend waking during the last prahara of the night, approximately 1.5 hours before sunrise, to perform practices like surya namaskar or , as this period is considered optimal for detoxification and mental clarity. In contemporary , morning routines including therapies like are often aligned with early prahara periods. Apps like the Ayurvedic Daily Routine guides emphasize timing meals and meditations according to prahara divisions, with dinner advised within the first prahara of the night (roughly 6-9 PM) to support digestion and sleep. Digital panchangas have revived prahara usage for festival observances, providing precise timings for rituals during events like and . For instance, platforms such as Drik Panchang provide precise muhurat timings for , recommending arghya offerings in specific periods to ensure auspiciousness, as seen in the 2024 timings where the first prahara aligned with ideal lamp-lighting hours. Similarly, for , apps like mPanchang and Kaldarpan send reminders for during auspicious periods like Pradosh Kaal in the evening, integrating traditional divisions into 21st-century calendars for global users observing the festival on March 14, 2025. These tools, accessible via mobile applications, enable precise scheduling, such as avoiding inauspicious periods during Rangwali celebrations. Globally, prahara influences among communities through specialized software that incorporates traditional time divisions into analyses. Programs like Parashara's Light aid users in the United States and to determine favorable times for events based on traditional time divisions. This adaptation supports Western interest in Vedic horoscopes, where apps extend prahara calculations for personalized muhurats in multicultural settings, such as timing weddings or meditations for Indian expatriates.

Extended Meanings and Interpretations

In modern and Marathi, the term "prahar" (प्रहार) has primarily shifted to signify a "strike," "blow," or "," reflecting a metaphorical extension from its roots where it denoted both a temporal watch and the act of striking, as in a guard's alert or drumbeat. This usage emphasizes forceful action or impact, appearing in contexts like and public discourse to convey decisive intervention. For instance, the 1991 Bollywood film Prahaar: The Final Attack, directed by and starring , employs the title to symbolize a soldier's rigorous training and ultimate confrontation with societal , portraying the "strike" as a for personal and collective transformation. The metaphorical sense of "prahar" as an "hour of action" or critical moment persists in motivational and journalistic spheres, blending its temporal origin with connotations of urgency and resolve. In Hindi journalism, this is exemplified by the Marathi daily Prahaar, established in 2010 with editions across Maharashtra, which leverages the term to project assertive, no-holds-barred coverage of regional issues, positioning the publication as a "striking" voice against injustice. Such applications highlight how the word evokes timely, impactful engagement in contemporary cultural narratives. Cross-culturally, the original temporal meaning of "prahara" has been borrowed into English academic terminology for discussing Indian chronology and astronomy, where it specifically refers to one of the eight three-hour divisions of a 24-hour day-night cycle in ancient systems. Scholarly analyses, such as those examining medieval Indian time units, adopt "prahara" to denote variable seasonal hours starting from sunrise, distinguishing it from fixed modern metrics and underscoring its role in historical rituals and calendars. This integration appears in etymological and historical references, preserving the term's precision in global studies of non-Western timekeeping traditions.

References

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  25. https://www.hinduismtoday.com/magazine/february-2000/2000-02-testing-the-time-theory/
  26. https://www.fitsri.com/articles/dinacharya-ayurveda-daily-routine
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  28. https://www.drikpanchang.com/
  29. https://kaldarpan.com/how-to-use-the-kaldarpan-app-for-daily-panchang-festival-reminders/
  30. http://www.parashara.com/
  31. https://parasharaslight.com/
  32. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0102701/
  33. https://www.themediaant.com/blog/list-of-marathi-newspapers/
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