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The technology of the Qanats of Iran is similar to that used for the puquios of Peru.

Key Information

The Cantalloc puquios near Nazca, Peru. The cork-screwing funnels are for access to the underground aqueduct.
An aqueduct emerges from an underground or gallery puquios into a trench which supplies water for irrigation and domestic uses.
Except for river valleys where irrigation is possible, the desert of the Nazca Region is barren. The Pan American Highway is in the distance.

Puquios (from Quechua pukyu meaning source, spring, or water well) are ancient systems of subterranean aqueducts which allow water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without loss of much of the water to evaporation. Puquios are found in the coastal deserts of southern Peru, especially in the Nazca region, and northern Chile. Forty-three puquios in the Nazca region were still in use in the early 21st century and relied upon to bring fresh water for irrigation and domestic use into desert settlements. The origin and dating of the Nazca puquios is disputed, although some archaeologists have estimated that their construction began about 500 CE by indigenous people of the Nazca culture.[1]

The technology of the puquios is similar to that of the Qanats of Iran and other desert areas of Asia and Europe, including Spain. A few puquios in northern Chile and in other parts of Peru were probably constructed at the initiative of the Spanish after the conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century.[2]

Origins

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Chile

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The puquios first became a subject of study in the early 20th century.[3] Although they had been known before, historic evidence was scarce. Around 1900 scholars noted that puquios, locally known as socavones (lit. shafts), were spread through the oases of Atacama Desert.[4] In the 21st century, puquios, in various states of use and decay, still exist in the valleys of Azapa and Sibaya and the oases of La Calera, Pica-Matilla and Puquio de Núñez.[4] In 1918 geologist Juan Brüggen mentioned the existence of 23 socavones (shafts) in the Pica oasis, yet these have since been abandoned due to economic and social changes.[4] The puquios of Pica-Matilla and Puquio Núñez tap the Pica Aquifer.[4]

Nazca puquios in Peru

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The puquios of the Nazca (or Nasca) region are of most interest to archaeologists as the area was the center of pre-Columbian civilizations such as Nazca culture which flourished from 100 BCE to 800 CE. Most archaeologists believe that the Nazca puquios are of pre-Columbian origin, but some believe that they were built by the indigenous subjects of the Spanish colonists in the 16th century. The theory of a Spanish origin holds that the puquios technology is not substantially different from Spanish techniques used from the early conquest to drain mines.[5] An early example is the mine of Potosí that was drained by subterranean canals as early as 1556 following instructions of Florentine engineer Nicolás de Benito.[5][6] Another argument for the Hispanic origin of puquios is that a Spanish law in Peru decreed that water from pre-Hispanic waterworks must be shared among landowners while the water from Hispanic waterworks could be owned by a single landowner. In an 18th-century legal case, a judge ruled in favor of the Hispanic origin of the puquios in the Chancay valley.[7]

Proponents for the pre-Hispanic origin of the Nazca puquios cite the establishment of large settlements in river valleys with puquios in the 6th century CE, an indication that the settlement was stimulated by the water supplied by the puquios. They interpret Nazca culture iconography as portraying puquios symbolically. Climatic change may also have been a factor as the region entered several centuries of extreme aridity after about 400 CE which required the construction of irrigation works, presumably puquios, to provide water for domestic use and irrigation. The first known historical writing to refer to puquios in Nazca was in 1605 by the Spanish cleric Reginaldo de Lizárraga. Lizárraga mentions that the "indios" (indigenous peoples) of the region made use of the puquios but does not specifically attribute their construction to either the Spanish or the indigenous people.[8] He also mentioned the much-diminished population of the indigenous people, their numbers a fraction of their pre-Columbian population due mostly to epidemics of European diseases.[9]

In the early 21st century Rosa Lasaponara, Nicola Masini, and their team of the Italian CNR (National Research Council), in cooperation with archaeologist Giuseppe Orefici, studied the Nazca puquios using satellite imaging.[10] They found evidence that the puquios system was once much more extensive. Scholars were able to see how the "puquios were distributed across the Nazca region, and where they ran in relation to nearby settlements – which are easier to date." Satellite imagery also revealed additional, previously unknown puquios in the Nazca drainage basin.[11][12] The team that conducted this study concluded that the puquios are pre-Hispanic.[11] In addition, RPAS (Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems), or drones, were used in 2016 to map and document five sample aqueduct systems in the Nazca region.[13]

A scientific method to precisely date the puquios has not been found, but, despite doubts, the "general consensus in 2017 was that the Nazca puquios were of "pre-Hispanic, Middle Nasca [c. 500 CE] origin...with subsequent Spanish and Republican modifications."[14] The pre-Columbian origin of the Nazca puquios does not contradict the likelihood that the origin of other puquios scattered sparsely around the Central and Southern Andes is Spanish.[15]

The technology of the puquios is similar to that of the qanats of Iran and Makhmur, Iraq, and other ancient filtration galleries known in numerous societies in the Old World and China, which appear to have been developed independently.[16] They are a sophisticated way to provide water from underground aquifers in arid regions.

Description of Nazca puquios

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The coasts of Peru and Northern Chile are exceptionally arid with agriculture only possible with irrigation. Precipitation is less than 25 millimetres (0.98 in) annually near the coast and increases only slowly at higher elevations in the inland Andes. Moreover, the Rio Grande de Nazca and its tributaries provide only sparse, seasonal water to the valleys on the Nazca region. In the past, precipitation was higher in some eras, possibly reaching an average of 200 millimetres (7.9 in) annually. The people of the Nazca culture may have built the puquios to adapt to a climatic transition from greater to lesser precipitation after 400 CE and enduring until about 1100 CE, followed by a wetter period which lasted until about 1450 CE at which time another drier era began that persisted into the 21st century. The Nazca culture flourished in the area from 200 BCE to 650 CE.[17][18]

The Nazca puquios are found along five of the nine named feeder streams into the Rio Grande de Nazca. From south to north, the rivers with puquios are Las Trancas, Taruga, and the Nazca, which has two tributaries, the Tierras Blancas and the Aja. The sources of the rivers is in the Andes about 70 kilometres (43 miles) from the puquios. The puquios are equally distant from the Pacific Ocean at elevations of about 500 metres (1,600 ft). These small rivers are mostly dry except during the rainy season in the Andes from January to April, but have both underground and surface sections during the dry season. The inhabitants of the river valleys constructed the puquios as sources of water during the dry season.[19]

As of the year 2000, 43 puquios were still functioning of which 29 were near the city of Nazca in the valley of the Nazca river and its tributaries. The best known of the puquios are the Cantalloc Aqueducts. The largest pre-Columbian ruin of a settlement in the Nazca valley is Cahuachi, about 18 kilometres (11 miles) downstream from Nazca and near the famous Nazca Lines. Cahuachi is located along a course of the river in which it runs on the surface and thus the settlement did not depend upon puquios as did the settlements a few kilometers upstream. Many more puquios were likely built in pre-historic times in several other river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca system. Deep wells have replaced the abandoned puquios. [20][21]

Two types of puquios are in the Nazca region. The first is the trench puquios which is a deep, narrow ditch, usually less than one meter in width and lined with rocks, which is open to the air. The second type is the gallery or subterranean puquios which is tunneled beneath the earth to tap the water from an aquifer. The water-bearing aquifer is typically about 10 metres (33 ft) underground, although it can be much closer to the surface. From the aquifer, the water flows through an underground tunnel downslope, emerging at the surface into a trench puquios for distribution to irrigation canals and for drinking and domestic purposes. The underground tunnel is typically about one meter square, although some of the tunnels reinforced with wood beams or in modern times with cement, can be 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height. Spaced along the route of the gallery puquios are vertical shafts, "eyes" or "ojos" in Spanish, which extend from the surface to the subterranean tunnel. The "ojos" permit access to the tunnel for maintenance and repair.[22] The funnel-shaped ojos are spaced from 10 metres (33 ft) to 30 metres (98 ft) apart. The length of the gallery (underground section) of the puquios ranges from a few meters to 372 metres (1,220 ft). The associated trench puquios may be as long as a kilometer.[23] [24]

History

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Fifty-seven small rivers along the 1,500 kilometres (930 miles) long desert coastline of Peru empty into the Pacific Ocean.[25] The river valleys were cultivated by their pre-Columbian inhabitants by using irrigation, but most of the valleys had more dependable and greater surface water availability than the often-dry rivers of the Nazca region. Conversely, the agricultural society of the Nazca people flourished best where surface water was most scarce. The puquios were the technology that permitted a substantial population to exist in an intensely arid region.[26]

The Spanish first exerted control and settled in the Nazca region in the late 16th century. Under Spanish rule the area was noted for viticulture and the production of pisco, a brandy. In 1853, the English traveler Clements Markham described the Nazca valley as "the most fertile and beautiful spot on the coast of Peru." He described the puquios and said that "the fertility is due to the skill and industry of the ancient inhabitants. Under their care an arid wilderness was converted into a smiling paradise." [27]

In the 21st century many of the puquios are still in use but their use is threatened by industrial agriculture and production of exportable crops such as asparagus. Deep wells have replaced some of the puquios as a source of water and the number of local people with the expertise to maintain the puquios has diminished. The modest amounts of water supplied by the puquios is replenished every year by precipitation at the source of the rivers in the Andes, but the exploitation by deep wells of underground water sources for agriculture and a growing population may not be sustainable.[28]

References

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Bibliography

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Puquios

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The puquios are ancient underground aqueduct systems found in the arid coastal deserts of southern and northern , used to access and distribute for and settlement. In southern , particularly the Valley, they were developed by the during the middle Nazca period (approximately A.D. 500–700). These hydraulic systems feature spiral-shaped surface entrances called ojos de puquio—funnel-like vents spaced 10–30 meters apart—that provide access, ventilation, and light while harnessing wind to propel water through gently sloping tunnels lined with stone slabs and river cobbles. In , the puquios were constructed as a response to severe droughts, such as the one between A.D. 540 and 610, tapping into water emerging from geological faults rather than relying solely on seasonal river flows and enabling year-round in one of the world's driest regions. The systems include horizontal galleries extending up to 1 kilometer or more, V-shaped aqueducts, and reservoirs known as kochas for storage and distribution, demonstrating advanced pre-Columbian without the use of metal tools or writing. As of the early , around 36 puquios remain functional in the area, including well-preserved examples at sites like Cantalloc and Aja, continuing to support local communities and highlighting the enduring resilience of this technology. In northern , puquios are located in oases such as Pica and provide similar water management functions, though their construction dates and cultural attributions vary, with some predating Spanish arrival. Similar in concept to qanats in the and Persia but adapted to local , the puquios represent a pinnacle of hydraulic innovation, sustaining intensive farming of crops like and across Peruvian valleys such as Taruga and Las Trancas. Their construction reflects a high degree of , as maintaining these labor-intensive structures required communal effort in societies without centralized authority. Studies using have revealed the full extent of the Peruvian network, underscoring its role in transforming desert landscapes into habitable oases.

Overview

Definition and Purpose

Puquios are ancient systems consisting of underground aqueducts or filtration galleries that tap into shallow aquifers to extract and transport to the surface through a network of tunnels and vertical shafts. These structures, also referred to as subterranean channels in some contexts, were engineered to access hidden water sources in extremely arid environments where is scarce. The term "puquio" derives from the Quechua word for spring, reflecting their role in mimicking natural emergence of water. The primary purpose of puquios was to enable for , facilitate , and ensure survival in the water-scarce coastal deserts of southern and northern , where reliable water access was essential for sustaining communities and cultivating crops like and . By providing a steady supply of water for fields and domestic needs, these systems transformed otherwise uninhabitable hyper-arid landscapes into viable living spaces, supporting social and in regions prone to prolonged droughts. At their core, puquios operate on the hydrological principle of capturing the subsurface flow of originating from the Andean foothills and directing it toward the coast via gently sloping subterranean channels, thereby minimizing losses that would occur in open conduits. This gravity-fed mechanism exploits the natural gradient and permeability of alluvial aquifers, allowing water to filter through sandy or gravelly soils before being channeled efficiently. The systems demonstrate remarkable scale and efficiency, capable of delivering consistent year-round flows—often persisting for months after seasonal rains—to sustain populations in zones receiving less than 10 mm of annual rainfall, such as the Nazca Basin in . Similar in design to qanats developed in the , puquios highlight convergent engineering solutions for arid-zone water management.

Geographical Distribution

The puquios are primarily concentrated in the Valley and the broader in southern , where approximately 36 systems remain operational today, with historical evidence suggesting up to 50 once existed across a span of about 50 km along the arid coastal desert. These are distributed mainly in the Valley (29 puquios), with smaller clusters in the Taruga Valley (2) and Las Trancas Valley (5), tapping into subsurface aquifers along geological faults and alluvial gravels. A notable cluster is the , located near the modern city of , which exemplify the dense adaptation to local for . In northern , around 30 puquios—known locally as socavones or filtration galleries—are documented, primarily in the Tarapacá Region's , with key sites in the Pica Oasis (including 24 galleries totaling 18.2 km in length across Pica, Matilla, and Puquio Núñez) and scattered in other areas like Azapa, Sibaya, and La Calera. These systems often cluster near oases in pre-Hispanic settlements, such as Pica at approximately 20°30'S latitude, extending into the further south toward 23–25°S. Isolated examples persist in these hyper-arid zones, supporting limited through extraction. While similar in function to the Peruvian puquios, the Chilean systems were likely introduced during the Spanish colonial period. Puquios in both regions are adapted to fog deserts with extreme and minimal surface water availability, where annual rainfall is often less than 10 mm, relying instead on subsurface recharged by Andean and highland runoff. In the region of southern near 15°S , the puquios access fed by seasonal Andean percolating through faults, while in Chile's Atacama (20–25°S), systems like those in Pica draw from the Pica , replenished via the Precordillera highlands at elevations up to 3,800 m. This geographical placement underscores their role in harnessing distant highland moisture sources for coastal survival, with origins tied to the in .

Origins and Development

In the Nazca Region of Peru

The puquios in the Nazca region of Peru emerged as a key hydraulic innovation of the Nazca culture during the Early Intermediate Period (c. 200 BCE–600 CE), with construction likely initiating in the Middle Nazca phase around 400–500 CE. Influenced by the hydraulic knowledge of the preceding Paracas culture (c. 800–200 BCE), the puquios represented an adaptation to the region's hyper-arid environment, where rainfall averages less than 25 mm annually and surface water sources were unreliable. Archaeological evidence suggests their development was tied to the Nazca's expansion into drier middle valley areas, with initial spiral shafts (known as ojos) and rudimentary tunnel prototypes documented in excavations within the Nazca Valley. Driven by recurrent drought cycles—such as those from 540–560 CE and 570–610 CE—and the pressures of , the puquios enabled sustainable settlement and in an otherwise inhospitable . These systems tapped subterranean aquifers, providing a steady that supported denser communities and ceremonial activities. Integrated with geoglyphs and sacred sites like , the puquios held ritual significance, symbolizing control over life-giving water in a culture where and environmental adaptation were central to spiritual practices. Evidence from of organic residues in puquio structures, including samples from Orcona and Cantalloc, confirms initial use between 552 and 658 CE, aligning with settlement shifts observed at sites like Pueblo Viejo. By the Late Nazca period (c. 500–800 CE), puquios evolved from isolated tunnels into interconnected networks across the , Taruga, and Las Trancas valleys, facilitating year-round . This expansion transformed arid terrains into productive farmlands, with systems like Cantalloc alone irrigating up to 3,000 hectares for crops such as , , and beans, while the broader network supported over 10,000 hectares region-wide. Such developments were crucial for sustaining agricultural surpluses amid environmental stresses, underscoring the Nazca's prowess in water management.

In Northern Chile

The puquios in northern , also referred to as filtration galleries or socavones, emerged during the colonial period, likely introduced by Spanish settlers in the mid-16th century as an adaptation of Islamic technology from the to the extreme aridity of the . These systems were driven by the need to access for sustaining and early activities in isolated oases, where sources were scarce and unreliable. Key locations include the valleys of Azapa and Sibaya, as well as the oases of Pica (including nearby Matilla and Puquio Núñez) and La Calera, where the galleries tapped alluvial aquifers to support crop cultivation and settlement growth. Archaeological evidence consists of the preserved tunnel structures, vertical access shafts, and associated colonial documents, with the Pica systems dating to the settlement of the area in the 1540s. In contrast to the extensive, gently sloping tunnel networks of the puquios in , which originated in pre-Hispanic times around 200–500 CE, the Chilean variants typically featured shorter horizontal galleries with more prominent vertical shafts, reflecting the steeper topography and shallower aquifers of the coastal Atacama gradients. Local Atacameño communities contributed to their maintenance and use, integrating them into traditional oasis-based economies amid the region's persistent challenges.

Design and Engineering

Key Components

The puquios system comprises several interconnected architectural elements designed to capture, transport, and distribute efficiently in arid environments, functioning as a sustainable hydraulic network for and domestic use. The primary components include the main tunnel, vertical access shafts, distribution channels, and filtration features, each contributing to the overall water flow and maintenance. The main tunnel, known as the galería, serves as the core conduit of the puquios, consisting of a sloping underground channel that follows the natural contours of to collect and channel over distances typically ranging from a few hundred meters to several kilometers. These tunnels are generally 1-2 meters high and less than 1 square meter in cross-section, with lengths up to 579 meters or more in some cases, and are lined with river cobbles without mortar to facilitate entry while preventing collapse. The gentle longitudinal slope, often 0.4-2.5%, allows gravity to drive the flow from the aquifer to the exit point, ensuring a steady supply in regions with limited . Roofs are constructed from dressed stone slabs or wooden logs, which require periodic replacement to maintain structural integrity. Vertical access shafts, referred to as ojos de agua or "eyes of water," are essential for maintenance, ventilation, and occasional water extraction, often featuring ramps (including modern spiral cobblestone reconstructions in some cases) that descend several meters deep. These shafts are often trapezoidal or funnel-shaped for stability, with surface openings up to 15 meters wide narrowing to 1-2 meters at the base, and are spaced 10-30 meters apart along the tunnel, sometimes numbering dozens in a single system. Their funnel shape also captures surface winds to create pressure that helps propel water through the tunnel. In some modernized examples, they incorporate cobblestone ramps to ease access for cleaning sediment and debris, while also providing natural light and airflow to prevent stagnation within the gallery. Their design enhances the system's longevity by allowing workers to inspect and repair the tunnel without disrupting the water flow. Distribution channels emerge from the main tunnel's exit as open surface canals, branching out to deliver to agricultural fields, reservoirs, and communities, often in V-shaped trenches lined with cobbles for durability. These channels typically have bases as narrow as 1 meter and tops up to 10 meters wide, extending up to 1 kilometer or more, and may connect to storage reservoirs known as cochas or eye ponds that allow to settle before further distribution. By regulating flow through their layout, they support across dry landscapes, with directed into secondary canals for precise allocation. Filtration features are integrated into the tunnel design to purify incoming water, primarily through - or cobble-lined sections that act as natural barriers against and debris. The inner walls, constructed with fluvial pebbles and sometimes waterproof clay, enable water to percolate slowly from the while trapping particulates, maintaining clear flow and preventing blockages. Additional elements like decanters and curved sections in the gallery help control water speed and enhance , ensuring the system's over time. Together, these components form a resilient network that taps subsurface resources for vital , adapting to the harsh conditions of the region.

Construction Techniques

The construction of puquios in the region of primarily involved manual excavation of horizontal tunnels and open trenches to intercept subterranean aquifers, often starting from surface entry points and extending inward using geological cues such as faults for guidance. These efforts produced three main types: open trenches that stepped downward to capture shallow subsurface water, filled-trench galleries for intermediate depths, and fully tunnelled galleries reaching up to 30 meters deep or more, with typical cross-sections of about 1 meter in height and width. Tunnels were aligned parallel to geological faults or perpendicular to river valleys to follow natural water paths, incorporating a controlled longitudinal of 0.4–2.5% to enable gravity-driven flow without mechanical aids. To ensure structural integrity in unstable sandy and alluvial soils, interiors were reinforced by lining walls with fluvial pebbles and sealing them with waterproof clay, while open trench borders used river pebbles as retaining walls. Vertical access shafts, or ojos de agua, were spaced 10–30 meters apart along the s, narrowing from about 15 meters at the surface to 1–2 meters underground, serving for ventilation, removal, and maintenance. Construction required organized communal effort by local communities, spanning centuries. In northern , particularly in the Pica Oasis, puquio construction followed analogous methods adapted to local , with horizontal tunnels excavated through unconsolidated Pleistocene-Holocene alluvial deposits of , clay, and to tap . Workers navigated harder layers by initially digging upward to bypass them before proceeding horizontally, resulting in tunnels averaging 0.8 meters wide and 1.8 meters high, often featuring side branches totaling over 2,400 meters to enhance water collection. Slopes varied from 0.2% to 2.6%, aligned southwest-northeast parallel to the topographic gradient, and shaft walls were stabilized with clay bricks () or linings to counter collapse. These systems reflect organized labor by Atacameño groups, with evidence of incremental extensions over time.

Historical Use and Evolution

Pre-Columbian Period

During the Pre-Columbian period, puquios in the region were essential for sustaining indigenous communities through community-managed operations that ensured reliable water flow. Local groups conducted annual cleaning of the underground tunnels via the spiral-shaped access points known as ojos, a labor-intensive process that prevented sediment buildup and maintained hydraulic efficiency, continuing as a communal tradition into modern times. Water extracted from these systems was allocated primarily for irrigating staple crops such as , , beans, and squash, enabling year-round in the arid de Nasca valley despite limited seasonal rainfall. This collaborative management reflected a sophisticated , with designated overseers or "puquio managers" regulating distribution to support household needs and agricultural productivity across settlements. Puquios played a central role in Nazca societal life, often positioned near ceremonial sites like , where water symbolized fertility and divine favor. These aqueducts supported agriculture in the Valley, underscoring their importance in maintaining social cohesion and . The peak usage of puquios occurred during the middle period (approximately A.D. 500–700), aligning with the height of before its decline around 750 CE, potentially exacerbated by overuse of aquifers or destructive El Niño floods that damaged infrastructure and disrupted water availability.

Colonial and Modern Periods

During the Spanish colonial period, puquios were documented in early chronicles as remarkable indigenous feats. Early accounts, such as that by Reginaldo de Lizárraga in 1605, described these underground aqueducts as ingenious works that facilitated water transport in arid regions, highlighting their role in sustaining agriculture post-conquest. Some puquios were repurposed to irrigate estates owned by Spanish settlers, integrating them into colonial agricultural systems, while others fell into neglect as European-imported technologies like surface canals and wells were prioritized for their perceived superiority and ease of control. In the 19th and 20th centuries, puquios experienced revivals tied to economic demands. In northern , similar qanat-like systems—locally termed puquios—were incorporated into operations, providing reliable for processing ore in and industries from the mid-19th century onward. However, seismic events posed significant threats, causing collapses in tunnels and filtration galleries that required community-led repairs. Into the , puquios remain vital in , with approximately 36 of the original systems still functional, collectively supplying for irrigation and domestic use in the and Ingenio valleys. The , a prominent puquio complex, fall under the broader Nazca Lines inscribed by in 1994. Contemporary challenges include urban encroachment, which has led to the construction of roads and buildings over access points, and ongoing seismic risks that exacerbate in the underground channels, reducing flow efficiency and necessitating periodic communal maintenance. Recent studies using , as of 2024, continue to reveal the full extent of the network and support preservation efforts amid climate challenges.

Significance and Research

Cultural and Environmental Impact

The puquios represent a profound symbol of ingenuity within Andean cosmo-vision, embodying a deep respect for natural and their integration into the of the people. These systems were likely intertwined with broader practices honoring 's life-giving role, as evidenced by geoglyphs such as triangular designs that precisely marked aquifers and faults channeling subsurface into valleys. In society, puquios fostered social cohesion by necessitating communal organization for construction, maintenance, and equitable distribution of for and domestic use, thereby strengthening community ties in an otherwise harsh environment. Environmentally, the puquios enabled the greening of arid landscapes by sustaining oases and growth, such as along like Atarco, which supported local in one of the world's driest regions. By tapping underground aquifers, they managed water flow to minimize evaporation and reduce risks, creating stable ecosystems resilient to climate variability, including prolonged droughts like those between A.D. 540 and 610. This year-round water availability transformed uninhabitable areas into productive ones, preventing expansion and bolstering ecological balance. The long-term legacy of puquios extends to their influence on subsequent water management practices, remaining in use during the Inca occupation (1476–1533) and serving as a model for in arid zones worldwide. As of the early , approximately 36 puquios continued to function out of an estimated original total of over 50, particularly in the valleys, demonstrating their enduring viability and potential for modern adaptations to address amid . Socioeconomically, these aqueducts boosted population densities in middle valley settlements by facilitating agricultural expansion, which in turn supported trade networks through surplus production of crops like and .

Contemporary Studies and Preservation

Contemporary studies on Puquios have increasingly employed advanced technologies to map and analyze their extent and functionality. Researchers Rosa Lasaponara and Nicola Masini utilized multispectral from Landsat and ASTER sensors to identify and reconstruct the ancient hydraulic networks in the Nasca River valley, revealing that the system likely supported perennial, ephemeral, and dry water regimes during the Nasca period. Their analysis, integrating (NDVI) and (NDWI), demonstrated that the Puquios were more extensive in antiquity, with of disused channels now detectable through signatures in arid landscapes. This approach has highlighted the engineering sophistication of the Puquios, enabling year-round access in one of the driest regions on . Building on such geophysical methods, recent investigations have explored the Puquios' relevance to modern climate challenges. A 2022 case study examined their role in fostering glocal , emphasizing how community-managed subsoil extraction sustained and domestic use amid extreme . This work underscores the Puquios as a model for sustainable , with ongoing functionality in 36 of the original systems attributed to their durable design and historical maintenance practices. Preservation efforts for Puquios in center on community involvement and institutional support to ensure their continued operation and cultural integrity. Local residents in the Nasca region perform periodic cleanings of the underground galleries and vents, a that has kept many aqueducts functional for irrigating over 3,000 hectares. The Peruvian has undertaken restorations, such as those at the Achaco and Ocongalla sites, while the systems are protected under national Law No. 28296 for archaeological heritage. In 2019, the aqueducts were added to UNESCO's Tentative List for World Heritage status under criteria (iii) and (iv), recognizing their outstanding testimony to Nasca ; this nomination has spurred further documentation and monitoring to mitigate threats like urban expansion. In northern , where similar subterranean aqueduct systems exist alongside Puquios-like structures, preservation focuses on broader archaeological contexts in the . These networks, including stone canals and holding ponds, remain impeccably preserved in sites like those near Ollagüe, supported by regional heritage initiatives that integrate them into and environmental protection efforts. However, specific studies on Chilean Puquios are limited compared to , with emphasis placed on preventing damage from off-road vehicles and mining activities in adjacent areas.

References

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  16. https://www.public.asu.edu/~atrid/ClarksonDornLAA95.pdf
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  18. https://www.unesco-hist.org/uploads/files/20160125/Springer_Lasaponara&Masini_chapter12_pubblicato.pdf
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344451935_Exploration_mapping_and_characterization_of_filtration_galleries_of_the_Pica_Oasis_northern_Chile_A_contribution_to_the_knowledge_of_the_Pica_aquifer
  20. https://theunconventionalgardener.com/blog/ancient-puquios-in-peru/
  21. https://nelisglobal.org/4revs/the-ancient-puquio-wells-of-nazca-peru-rethinking-climate-resilience-glocally/
  22. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/latin-american-antiquity/article/new-chronometric-dates-for-the-puquios-of-nasca-peru/1813C48FA131E0AAD3FC41C4C2500884
  23. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/puquios
  24. https://caminocorp.com/projects/puquios/
  25. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/700
  26. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6407/
  27. https://archaeology.org/issues/online/off-the-grid/off-the-grid-6/
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