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Rex Sacrorum
Rex Sacrorum
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Part of a series on the
Priesthoods
of ancient Rome
Flamen (AD 250–260)
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In ancient Roman religion, the rex sacrorum ("king of the sacred things", also sometimes rex sacrificulus[1]) was a senatorial priesthood[2] reserved for patricians. Although in the historical era, the pontifex maximus was the head of Roman state religion, Festus says[3] that in the ranking of the highest Roman priests (ordo sacerdotum), the rex sacrorum was of highest prestige, followed by the flamines maiores (Flamen Dialis, Flamen Martialis, Flamen Quirinalis) and the pontifex maximus. The rex sacrorum was based in the Regia.[4]

Description

[edit]

During the Roman Republic, the rex sacrorum was chosen by the pontifex maximus from a list of patricians submitted by the College of Pontiffs.[5] A further requirement was that he be born from parents married through the ritual of confarreatio, which was also the form of marriage he himself had to enter.[6] His wife, the regina sacrorum, also performed religious duties specific to her role.[7] Marriage was thus such a fundamental part of the priesthood that if the regina died, the rex had to resign.[8] The rex sacrorum was above the pontifex maximus, although he was more or less a powerless figurehead.

The rex sacrorum wore a toga, the undecorated soft "shoeboot" (calceus), and carried a ceremonial axe; as a priest of archaic Roman religion, he sacrificed capite velato, with head covered.[9] The rex held a sacrifice on the Kalends of each month. On the Nones, he announced the dates of festivals for the month. On March 24 and May 24, he held a sacrifice in the Comitium.[10] In addition to these duties the rex sacrorum seems to have functioned as the high priest of Janus.[11]

The rex sacrorum was a feature of Italic religion and possibly also Etruscan. The title is found in Latin cities such as Lanuvium, Tusculum, and Velitrae. At Rome the priesthood was deliberately depoliticized;[12] the rex sacrorum was not elected, and his inauguration was merely witnessed by a comitia calata, an assembly called for the purpose. Like the flamen Dialis but in contrast to the pontiffs and augurs, the rex was barred from a political and military career. After the overthrow of the kings of Rome, the office of rex sacrorum fulfilled at least some of the sacral duties of kingship, with the consuls assuming political power and military command, as well as some sacral functions. It is a matter of scholarly debate as to whether the rex sacrorum was a "decayed king" and it's discussed if this figure was created during the formation of the Republic, as Arnaldo Momigliano argued, or had existed in the Regal period.[13]

Regina sacrorum

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As the wife of the rex sacrorum, the regina sacrorum ("queen of the sacred things") was a high priestess who carried out ritual duties only she could perform. On the Kalends of every month, the regina presided at the sacrifice of a sow (porca) or female lamb (agna) to Juno.[14] The highly public nature of these sacrifices, like the role of the Vestals in official Roman religion, contradicts the commonplace notion that women's religious activities in ancient Rome were restricted to the private or domestic sphere. Unlike the Vestals, however, the regina sacrorum and the flaminica Dialis (the wife of the flamen Dialis or high priest of Jupiter) were complements to a male partner; these two priesthoods were gender-balanced and had shared duties.[15]

While performing her rituals, the regina wore a headdress called the arculum, formed from a garland of pomegranate twigs tied up with a white woolen thread.[16] The rex and regina sacrorum were required to marry by the ritual of confarreatio, originally reserved for patricians, but after the Lex Canuleia of 445 BC, it is possible that the regina could have been plebeian.[17]

Inscriptions record the names of a few reginae sacrorum, including Sergia Paullina, the wife of Cn. Pinarius Cornelius Severus, shortly before 112 AD, and Manlia Fadilla around the 2nd/3rd century AD.[18]

Decline and later use

[edit]

The office of rex sacrorum was not a highly coveted position among the patricians, for although the rex sacrorum was technically superior to the pontiffs, the rank conferred no real political gain. Because of this there would be some years without a rex sacrorum at all. By the time of Antony's civil war the office was entirely in disuse, but seems to have been revived later by Augustus as there was mention of it during the empire until it was probably abolished by Theodosius I.[19]

[edit]
  • "The King of Sacrifices" by John Maddox Roberts appears in The Mammoth Book of Historical Detectives, edited by Michael Ashley. (Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1995) ISBN 0-7867-0214-1

See also

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References

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Rex Sacrorum

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The Rex Sacrorum (Latin for "king of the sacred rites") was a senior priestly office in ancient Roman religion, instituted after the expulsion of the in 509 BCE to fulfill the religious functions previously performed by the kings, thereby separating sacred duties from political power. Selected for life from the patrician class and inaugurated through priestly rituals rather than republican magistracies, the Rex Sacrorum conducted public sacrifices, announced the Kalends (the first day of each month), and held the auspicia to interpret divine will for the state. Residing in the —the former royal palace near the Forum Romanum—he symbolized the persistence of monarchical religious traditions amid the Republic's republican institutions, while remaining subordinate to the in the priestly hierarchy. This office played a crucial role in upholding the pax deorum (peace with the gods), essential to Roman state stability, by preserving archaic rituals that ensured divine favor for the community. Unlike other priesthoods such as the pontifices or augures, which often served as pathways to political advancement, the Rex Sacrorum was barred from holding magisterial offices, reflecting deliberate constraints to prevent any resurgence of kingly authority. Historical accounts, including those by Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, emphasize its patrician exclusivity and ceremonial precedence among priests, underscoring its function as a bridge between Rome's regal past and its republican present. The position endured through the Republic but faded in prominence during the Empire, as imperial cult practices overshadowed traditional collegial priesthoods.

Origins and Historical Context

Pre-Republican Roots

The rex sacrorum originated as a vestige of the Roman monarchy's royal priesthood, during which the king served as the primary religious authority, performing public sacrifices and acting as the earthly representative of in mediating between the divine and human realms. This sacral role underscored the king's potency in religious matters, as evidenced by ancient traditions ranking the rex sacrorum above other priests due to his inherited royal auspices. Scholars debate whether the office predated the Republic or was instituted during the transition from . The traditional view, supported by sources like , posits that the office was created immediately after the 's abolition, as a lifelong, apolitical figure to take over the king's sacred functions without political power. In contrast, argued that the priesthood was created in the early to reassign the king's religious duties to a neutral patrician, avoiding any revival of monarchical authority amid the new consular system. Livy's account explicitly ties the office's establishment to the abolition of kingship in 509 BCE, stating that the Romans appointed a rex sacrorum to handle the sacred rites previously performed by kings, thereby depoliticizing religious authority and ensuring it remained separate from the consuls' . This creation reflected a deliberate effort to maintain ritual continuity while neutralizing potential threats to republican governance. The rex sacrorum's role conceptually paralleled transitional figures like the , who temporarily held limited religious and administrative powers between magistrates, illustrating how post-monarchical adapted monarchical religious elements to fit an oligarchic framework.

Establishment in the Early

The in 509 BCE, marked by the expulsion of , prompted the establishment of the rex sacrorum as a dedicated religious office to fulfill the sacred duties previously held by the . This creation ensured the continuity of essential public rituals without restoring monarchical authority, thereby separating religious functions from the emerging republican political structure dominated by consuls. According to , following the , a "king of sacrifices" was appointed specifically to perform the public sacrifices that the kings had customarily offered, preventing any perceived absence in divine observance that might invite superstition or unrest. In the context of early Republican religious reforms, the rex sacrorum was integrated into a reorganized priesthood, subordinating its authority to the to align with the new aristocratic oversight of . This hierarchy, as described by , mirrored Athenian models like the , emphasizing ritual expertise over political command and safeguarding the republic's liberty from any vestige of royal power. The office's institution reflected broader efforts to institutionalize religious practices under senatorial and priestly control, ensuring that sacral kingship symbolized continuity while remaining apolitical. Early operations of the rex sacrorum are evidenced by its role in calendrical announcements, particularly the proclamation of monthly festivals on the Nones, a duty inherited from the and conducted at the . Macrobius records that the rex sacrorum, in coordination with the pontifices, would declare the festival dates to the assembled people, maintaining the rhythm of religious life amid the republic's formation. This practice underscored the office's immediate functionality in preserving ritual order. The presence of analogous offices in Latin cities such as and further indicates that the rex sacrorum drew from broader Italic religious traditions, suggesting influences beyond Rome's immediate context. Epigraphic evidence, including inscriptions from these sites (CIL XIV 2089 for and XIV 2634 for ), attests to local rex sacrorum figures performing similar sacral roles, highlighting the office's roots in regional practices that informed its Republican adaptation.

Priesthood Structure and Qualifications

Eligibility and Appointment

The rex sacrorum was exclusively a patrician male, reflecting the office's roots in the aristocratic religious traditions of early Rome. This eligibility criterion ensured continuity with the monarchy's sacral roles; plebeians were barred from the position, a restriction that went unchallenged due to its perceived lack of political advantage. The candidate was selected for life by the pontifex maximus from among patricians, emphasizing the office's integration into the elite priestly hierarchy under the chief pontiff's authority. To preserve ritual purity and prevent entanglement with secular power, the rex sacrorum was strictly prohibited from holding any political or offices during his tenure. This exemption extended to immunity from civil and obligations, allowing undivided focus on sacred duties. The appointment process began with the designating a suitable , followed by election in the comitia calata, a presided over by the pontiffs. Inauguration then occurred through a rite conducted by the augurs, who took auspices to confirm the gods' favor, often in the presence of the pontifical college. A significant historical instance illustrates the inauguration's sensitivity to omens: in 180 BCE, L. Cornelius Dolabella, a patrician, was chosen as rex sacrorum but sought to evade the role due to its restrictions. During the comitia calata proceedings, a erupted, prompting the augurs to declare the auspices unfavorable and nullify the , thereby allowing Dolabella to pursue consular ambitions instead. The office's lifetime tenure underscored its gravity, binding the holder irrevocably unless he became a widower, at which point was mandatory to uphold the position's marital prerequisites.

Marital and Familial Requirements

The rex sacrorum was required to be born of parents who had been married through the ancient patrician rite of , a solemn ceremony involving the offering of a cake to Farreus, which ensured the child's full patrician status and ritual purity for high priesthood. This familial prerequisite underscored the office's reliance on inherited religious legitimacy, linking the priest's eligibility directly to the sanctity of his lineage's marital bonds. In addition to his origins, the rex sacrorum himself had to marry via , forming a sacred with his wife, the regina sacrorum, that was indissoluble except through the rare rite of diffarreatio. This was not merely personal but integral to the office, as the couple's union maintained the ritual purity necessary for performing sacrifices and ceremonies on behalf of the Roman state. The death of the regina sacrorum necessitated the rex's immediate , as the priesthood could not continue without the living marital bond that preserved its sacral . This rule highlighted the office's profound dependence on familial stability, where any disruption in the spousal relationship compromised the priest's ability to mediate between the human and divine realms. While these marital stipulations paralleled those of the —both requiring and resignation upon a spouse's —the rex sacrorum faced fewer additional taboos, such as prohibitions on riding or viewing the , allowing greater flexibility in daily life while still emphasizing the sanctity of the unit. Thus, the position reinforced Roman religious ideals of purity through enduring, ritually consecrated ties, ensuring the continuity of sacred duties across generations.

Duties and Rituals

Daily and Monthly Ceremonies

The rex sacrorum conducted the principal monthly sacrifices on the Kalends, the first day of each Roman month, in the Curia Calabra located in the adjacent to the Forum Romanum. These rites marked the commencement of the and invoked divine protection for the ensuing period, with the rex, assisted by a pontifex minor, performing an offering to . His wife, the regina sacrorum, conducted a to Juno in the . The ceremonies adhered to archaic Roman protocol, including the rite of capite velato, in which the rex veiled his head with a fold of his to signify reverence and separation from the profane world during the invocation and slaughter of the victim using a ceremonial axe as a symbol of sacred authority. Prayers during Roman state rituals often began with invocations to to emphasize his primacy in the pantheon and his liminal function in temporal and spatial boundaries. On the Kalends, following the sacrifice, the pontifex minor summoned the people to the Calabra and announced the timing of the Nones using the archaic formula "calo" (I summon), proclaiming "quintanas" (five days) or "septimanas" (seven days) by repeating the word accordingly. On the Nones, the fifth or seventh day of the month depending on its length, the rex sacrorum fulfilled his calendrical duties by summoning the people and announcing the dates of festivals (feriae) for the month, a that followed an initial sacrifice and helped synchronize civic and religious activities. describes a related observance on January 9 (), where the rex offered the mate of a woolly ewe to , illustrating rites to placate divine forces at key points in the month. No specific daily ceremonies are attested for the rex sacrorum, though his residence in the placed him at the center of ongoing sacred activities. Through these recurring observances, the rex sacrorum embedded the priesthood within the Roman calendar's structure, fostering communal awareness of sacred time and facilitating the public's engagement in the state cult by delineating periods of , work, and abstention. This routine framework distinguished the rex's monthly responsibilities from annual festivals, maintaining a steady pulse for Rome's religious life.

Special Sacrifices and Festivals

The rex sacrorum attended the on and , days marked Q.R.C.F. (Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas) in the , to declare these days permissible (fas) for public activities, likely in connection with the Tubilustrium rites purifying trumpets and ensuring purity during seasonal transitions. In major festivals, the rex sacrorum participated as the symbolic embodiment of the ancient kingly authority, particularly evident in the on February 15, where his presence reinforced the rite's archaic connections to purification and fertility. This involvement extended to other state ceremonies, such as the Regifugium on , where he conducted a followed by a ritual flight, parodying the expulsion of the while preserving sacral continuity. These events highlighted his function as a bridge between republican institutions and pre-republican divine kingship. Through these infrequent observances, the rex sacrorum represented the enduring ideal of divine kingship, mediating between the gods and the Roman people in moments of communal vulnerability and renewal, thereby maintaining the pax deorum without encroaching on civil magistracies.

The Role of the Regina Sacrorum

Duties and Responsibilities

The regina sacrorum, as the wife of the rex sacrorum, held a distinct priestly role in Roman religion, functioning as a public priestess who performed rituals independently yet in tandem with her husband to uphold the state's sacred obligations. Her position emphasized the marital partnership essential to the office, distinguishing her from other female priestesses like the Vestals or flaminicae, whose roles were not inherently tied to a male counterpart's tenure. Her primary duty involved conducting a monthly sacrifice to Juno on the Kalends, the first day of each month, offering a sow or sheep at the , the official residence of the rex and regina sacrorum. This rite paralleled the rex sacrorum's own Kalends sacrifice but was performed separately by the regina, reinforcing Juno's over beginnings and transitions. During these ceremonies, she wore the arculum, a specialized headdress crafted from twigs woven into a crown and secured with white woolen threads, symbolizing fertility and ritual purity. Symbolically, the regina sacrorum partnered with the rex to maintain the religious purity of both the household and the state, residing at the where their joint presence ensured the sanctity of public practices. This intertwined role underscored the holistic nature of Roman priesthood, where the couple's union preserved the pax deorum through complementary rituals, setting the regina apart as an integral yet subordinate figure in the religious hierarchy.

Historical Examples

One of the earliest documented reginae sacrorum from the Imperial period is Sergia Paullina, wife of the rex sacrorum Cn. Pinarius Cornelius Severus, who held the priesthood shortly before 112 AD. Her role is inferred from epigraphic evidence linking her to her husband's tenure, as direct inscriptions naming her explicitly as regina are not preserved, though her status as his spouse in marriage would have qualified her for the office. This example illustrates the continuity of the regina's position alongside the rex in the early second century, tied to senatorial families maintaining traditional priesthoods under Trajanic rule. A later instance appears in the mid-second to early third century AD with Manlia Fadilla, daughter of L. Manlius and of the rex sacrorum and C. Va[...], as recorded in two funerary inscriptions from . These texts (CIL VI 2123–2124) describe her as regina sacrorum and commemorate her as a devoted and , highlighting the office's persistence into amid the evolving religious landscape. Such inscriptions provide rare direct attestation, often connecting the regina to her rex husband's identity and emphasizing familial piety. The scarcity of records for reginae sacrorum underscores the office's low public profile, with most evidence derived from incidental epigraphic mentions rather than literary sources or dedicated monuments. Only a handful of such ties to specific rex holders survive, reflecting the private, auxiliary nature of the role within Roman religious hierarchies.

Position in Roman Religion

Hierarchy Among Priests

In the Roman priestly , the rex sacrorum held the highest rank among all priests, as outlined in the ordo sacerdotum preserved by Festus, where he is listed first, followed by the , flamen Martialis, flamen Quirinalis, and . This precedence reflected the rex sacrorum's role as the direct successor to the sacral functions of the , positioning him as the preeminent figure in ceremonial matters. Although the rex sacrorum outranked the in formal precedence—such as in seating arrangements at rituals, where he reclined above all others— he was subordinate to the in terms of actual authority over religious and administration. The , as head of the collegium pontificum, wielded executive power in interpreting divine law and overseeing other priesthoods, while the rex sacrorum's influence was confined to performing sacrifices and announcements. The rex sacrorum shared certain ritual restrictions with the , including the prohibition on holding magisterial office, but enjoyed greater ceremonial primacy as the top-ranked priest, emphasizing his overarching "kingly" status in the religious order. In contrast to the augurs, who could engage in political activities and even hold consulships while interpreting omens, the rex sacrorum was strictly barred from any civil or military roles, underscoring his isolation from the political sphere. This prohibition on political involvement distinguished the rex sacrorum from the pontiffs and augurs, who actively participated in civic governance and legal matters, allowing the former to serve as a depoliticized "kingly" that preserved monarchical religious traditions without threatening republican institutions. Post-monarchy, this conceptual ensured continuity in sacral kingship, with the rex sacrorum embodying divine authority in a symbolic rather than executive capacity.

Residence and Symbols

The Regia, situated in the Roman Forum, was the former royal palace that served as the administrative headquarters for the pontifex maximus, originally constructed around the seventh century BCE as the home of Rome's kings and later adapted for priestly use following the monarchy's abolition. This structure, attributed in tradition to King Numa Pompilius, who reportedly donated it to the Pontifex Maximus, symbolized the continuity of sacred kingship in republican religious practice and housed essential cult sites, including shrines to Mars—containing sacred spears and the ancestral shield (ancile)—and to Ops Consiva, accessible only to high priests and the Vestal Virgins. The rex sacrorum's association with the Regia underscored his role in preserving archaic rituals once performed by monarchs, as noted by ancient historians like Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Restorations to the building, such as those in 210 BCE and 36 BCE, maintained its centrality to state religion without altering its foundational purpose. In terms of attire, the rex sacrorum donned a simple as his primary garment, reflecting the austere and archaic nature of his office, paired with the —a soft, undecorated shoe—to denote his patrician and priestly status. He also bore a ceremonial axe (securis), a symbol of sacrificial authority derived from royal regalia, used in performing rites that echoed the king's former duties. During ceremonies, he observed the tradition of capite velato, covering his head with a fold of the toga to avert omens and maintain ritual purity, a practice common among Roman priests but emblematic of his role as guardian of sacred traditions. The rex sacrorum's symbolic oversight extended to the temple of , where he acted as the deity's principal , conducting sacrifices such as those on the in to invoke and new beginnings, thereby linking his authority to the god of transitions and doorways. This connection highlighted his position as a symbolic bridge between the regal past and republican , with the temple's gates—opened in wartime and closed in —serving as a broader of Roman fortune under his ritual purview.

Decline and Legacy

Republican and Imperial Developments

During the Roman Republic, the office of the rex sacrorum experienced frequent vacancies, often lasting one or two years, primarily due to its low prestige among patricians, who viewed its ritual restrictions as incompatible with active political or military careers. A notable instance of reluctance occurred in 180 BCE, when Lucius Cornelius Dolabella, a former and naval commander, attempted to evade appointment by invoking augural auspices during his inauguration; a interrupted the proceedings, allowing him to the decision, though he was ultimately compelled to accept the role after a fine was imposed by the . This case highlights the office's diminished , as its lifelong tenure barred the holder from magistracies, provincial commands, and even riding a , rendering it unattractive to ambitious elites. The position fell into complete disuse during the late Republican civil wars, including those involving , as political instability and the deaths or exiles of priests left no successors amid the broader neglect of traditional cults. Vacancies persisted from the late second century BCE until the early . Under , the office was revived as part of his broader program to restore ancestral religion and legitimize the through continuity with Republican traditions; inscriptions and literary references indicate its active role into the first century AD, with holders performing public sacrifices and ranking above other priests in ceremonial precedence. This revival aligned with Augustus's assumption of the pontifex maximus title in 12 BCE, emphasizing the rex sacrorum's symbolic importance without threatening imperial authority. The rex sacrorum also spread beyond to other Latin communities, such as , , and Velitrae, where local holders adapted the role to regional Italic religious practices, performing similar sacrificial duties in municipal cults during the Imperial period.

Abolition and Later Influence

The office of the rex sacrorum was abolished in the late 4th century AD amid the Christianization of the under , whose edicts of 391 and 392 prohibited all pagan sacrifices and rituals, rendering the priestly functions of the position untenable. These measures, codified in the Theodosian Code (CTh 16.10.10–12), targeted the core duties of pagan priesthoods, including those of the rex sacrorum, leading to the dissolution of such roles without formal decree specific to the office. By this period, the rex sacrorum had already faded into relative obscurity, with no named incumbents recorded after the early Imperial era, highlighting its diminished prominence even before the bans. Post-abolition, the rex sacrorum exerted minimal direct influence on later religious or political structures, as the Christian triumph erased most pagan institutions without revival. However, its legacy persisted in scholarly interpretations of Roman religion, where debates center on the office's role as a vestige of divine kingship, symbolizing the transfer of sacral authority from monarchs to republican priests under Numa Pompilius's reforms. Analyses, such as those examining its association with and ritual precedence, underscore its significance as a bridge between regal and priestly power, though these discussions remain confined to classical without broader cultural revival. In medieval and scholarship, the rex sacrorum appeared sporadically in antiquarian studies of Roman institutions, informing humanist reconstructions of pagan piety but inspiring no institutional emulation; for instance, it featured in examinations of priestly hierarchies without influencing models. This obscurity reinforced its status as a historical curiosity rather than a model for later sacral kingship concepts.

References

  1. https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/ancient/romrelig3.asp
  2. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2233&context=honorstheses
  3. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Rex.html
  4. https://pressbooks.claremont.edu/clas112pomonavalentine/chapter/94/
  5. https://spark.bethel.edu/history-faculty/3/
  6. https://www.academia.edu/54781465/Rex_Sacrorum_On_the_Origins_and_Evolution_of_Sovereign_Power
  7. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antichthon/article/politics-power-and-the-divine-the-rex-sacrorum-and-the-transition-from-monarchy-to-republic-at-rome/2DC12ED4C81E8E2F2A114022D6B033A7
  8. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0026%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D2
  9. https://www.loebclassics.com/view/macrobius-saturnalia/2011/pb_LCL510.179.xml
  10. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?object=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aentry%3Dgroup%3D1240
  11. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?object=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aentry%3Dgroup%3D2125
  12. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Rex_Sacrificulus.html
  13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7834/phoenix.69.3-4.0334
  14. https://amesfoundation.law.harvard.edu/RL/lectures/c14.out.marriage.pdf
  15. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/public/gdcmassbookdig/janusinromanlife01burc/janusinromanlife01burc.pdf
  16. https://www.theoi.com/Text/OvidFasti1.html
  17. https://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/i10895.pdf
  18. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/fasti-sacerdotum-9780199291137
  19. https://www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_2006_num_75_1_2609_t1_0445_0000_2
  20. https://academic.oup.com/bics/article/44/Supplement_73/19/5612337
  21. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA%2A/Rex_Sacrificulus.html
  22. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/romanforum/regia.html
  23. https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/156882
  24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3269302
  25. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4386962
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