Hubbry Logo
RioniRioniMain
Open search
Rioni
Community hub
Rioni
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Rioni
Rioni
Rioni
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Rioni
Rioni River in Racha Region
Rioni is located in Georgia
Rioni
Map
Native nameრიონი (Georgian)
Location
CountryGeorgia
Cities
Physical characteristics
SourceMain Caucasian Range
Caucasus Mountains
MouthBlack Sea
 • location
Poti
 • coordinates
42°11′3″N 41°38′10″E / 42.18417°N 41.63611°E / 42.18417; 41.63611
Length327 km (203 mi)
Basin features
Tributaries 
 • leftTekhuri, Qvirila
 • rightTskhenistsqali

The Rioni (Georgian: რიონი [ˈɾio̞n̪i]; Ancient Greek: Φᾶσις, Phâsis) is the main river of western Georgia. It originates in the Caucasus Mountains, in the region of Racha and flows west to the Black Sea, entering it north of the city of Poti (near ancient Phasis). The city of Kutaisi, once the ancient city of Colchis, lies on its banks. It drains the western Transcaucasus into the Black Sea while the river Kura drains the eastern Transcaucasus into the Caspian Sea.

History

[edit]
Herodotus considered the Rioni river to be a boundary between Europe and Asia.[1]

Ancient authors

[edit]

Known to the ancient Greeks as the river Phasis, the Rioni was first mentioned by Hesiod in his Theogony (l.340); Plato has Socrates remark: "I believe that the earth is very large and that we who dwell between the pillars of Hercules and the river Phasis live in a small part of it about the sea, like ants or frogs about a pond" (Phaedo, 109a). Later writers like Apollonius Rhodius (Argonautica 2.12.61), Virgil (Georgics 4.367) and Aelius Aristides (Ad Romam 82) considered it the easternmost limit of the navigable seas. Herodotus and Anaximander considered Rioni a boundary between Europe and Asia.[1] The famed voyage of Jason and the Argonauts, though semi-mythological, was said to have occurred by the Argonauts sailing up the river Phasis from its outlet to the Black Sea at Poti, to Colchis (modern Kutaisi in Georgia).[citation needed]

Pheasant

[edit]

The term "pheasant" and the scientific name Phasianus colchicus are derived from "Phasis" and "Colchis",[2] as this was said to be the region from which the common pheasant was introduced to Europe[3] (the ring-necked pheasants were introduced later from East Asia).

Draining

[edit]

It is said that "the failure of Colchis to emerge as a strong kingdom or to be maintained as a province of Rome has been blamed on the pestilential climate of the Phasis Valley, a situation remarked upon by travelers down to modern times, when the swamps were finally drained."[4] Wetlands around Rioni River has been drained through a large reclamation-drainage project commissioned by government in 1960. After that, the area was cleared and converted to agricultural land.[5]

Description

[edit]

The Rioni is the longest river wholly within the borders of Georgia. The river is 327 kilometres (203 mi) long, and its drainage basin covers about 13,400 square kilometres (5,200 sq mi).[6] It starts on the southern slopes of the Caucasus Mountains at 2,960 metres (9,710 ft) above sea level, north of the town of Oni. Its largest tributaries are, from source to mouth: Jejora (left), Qvirila (left), Khanistsqali (left), Tskhenistsqali (right) and Tekhuri (right).

Phasis river at Taprobana

[edit]

Stephanus of Byzantium wrote that there was also another river which was named Phasis, in Taprobana (Ancient Greek: Φᾶσις ἐν τῇ Ταπροβάνῃ), as the Indian Ocean island of Ceylon or Sri Lanka was known to the ancient Greeks.[7]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Rioni

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Rioni River (Georgian: რიონი) is the longest and most significant river in western Georgia, measuring 327 kilometers in length and originating from glaciers in the Mountains within the region before flowing westward through diverse landscapes to discharge into the near the city of . Its spans approximately 13,400 square kilometers, encompassing about 20% of Georgia's territory and supporting a wide array of ecosystems from alpine headwaters to lowland wetlands. Historically known as the Phasis in sources, the river held mythological importance as the boundary of the world in Colchian legends and was a key for ancient and in the Black Sea region. The Rioni's course traverses several administrative regions, including , , and , passing through major urban centers such as Ambrolauri and , Georgia's third-largest city, where it serves as a central geographical and cultural feature. Fed primarily by glacial melt, snow, rainfall, and groundwater, the river maintains an average annual discharge of around 13.37 cubic kilometers, making it navigable in its lower reaches and essential for , , and transportation in the fertile Lowland. However, its flow has been altered by a series of hydroelectric dams, notably the Vartsikhe cascade built in the 1970s and 1980s, which regulate water for energy production but fragment the river and impact downstream habitats. Ecologically, the Rioni is a critical for biodiversity, particularly with its lower reaches remaining free-flowing and supporting the spawning of critically endangered sturgeon species, including the beluga (Huso huso), (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii), and stellate sturgeon ( stellatus). The river's delta and adjacent wetlands, part of the expanded Kolkheti National Park since 2022, host rare peat bogs, swamp alder forests, and migratory bird populations, underscoring its role as a global hotspot for conservation amid threats like poaching, pollution, sand extraction, and proposed new dams, including the controversial Namakhvani project cancelled in 2021 amid protests but with ongoing revival attempts. In addition to its ecological value, the Rioni supports recreational activities such as white-water rafting and in its upper sections during late spring and early summer, attracting adventure tourists to its turbulent rapids and scenic gorges.

Geography

Course

The Rioni River originates from glaciers on the southern slopes of the Mountains, near the base of Mount Phasi at an elevation of approximately 2,620 meters above , in the remote region of western Georgia. From its source near the Pasi , the river initially flows northwest through steep, narrow canyons and gorges characterized by high gradients and rapid currents, traversing rugged mountainous terrain in the regions. As it descends, the Rioni enters the region, where the gradient moderates near the city of , allowing for gentler flows and the development of broader valleys. Here, it receives significant tributaries, including the Kvirila River (140 km long) from the southeast and the Tskhenistskali River (176 km long) from the north, which contribute to its increasing volume and sediment load. Further downstream, the river passes through the Colchian Lowland, crossing into the and regions, where it meanders across flat, swampy floodplains with low flow velocities, forming branches, sand islands, and seasonal deltas. The Rioni maintains a total length of 327 km and drains a basin of about 13,400 km², representing roughly 20% of Georgia's territory, before emptying into the via a delta near the port city of . Along its lower course, additional tributaries such as the Tekhuri (101 km) and Tsivi (60 km) join from the north, enhancing its role as a vital in western Georgia's diverse landscapes from alpine heights to coastal plains.

Hydrology and Basin

The Rioni River basin covers an area of approximately 13,400 square kilometers in western Georgia, encompassing regions from the Mountains to the coast, and represents the second-largest in the country. This basin includes diverse terrain, ranging from highland mountainous areas to the low-lying Kolkheti Lowland, and supports a network of up to 700 smaller rivers and . It constitutes about 20% of Georgia's total land area and contributes over 75% of the nation's resources, making it a critical hydrological feature for the western watershed. The Rioni River itself measures 327 kilometers in length, originating from the glaciers and snowfields of the Greater Caucasus at an elevation of approximately 2,620 meters near Mount Pasi in the Racha region, and flowing generally westward before emptying into the Black Sea near Poti. Its course traverses varied geological formations, including Paleozoic crystalline rocks in the upper reaches and Quaternary alluvial deposits in the lower plain, which influence sediment transport and channel morphology. Major tributaries, such as the Kvirila (from the south), Tskhenistskali (from the north), and Abasha (in the lower basin), contribute significantly to the river's flow, with these left- and right-bank streams draining the surrounding mountain slopes and adding to the overall water volume. Hydrologically, the Rioni exhibits a pluvial-nival regime typical of coastal rivers, characterized by high annual precipitation of 1,000 to 2,000 millimeters across the basin, driven by the and influences. Average annual discharge at the is approximately 430 cubic meters per second, equivalent to an annual runoff volume of about 13.4 cubic kilometers, though measurements vary slightly between 399 and 430 m³/s depending on the gauging station. The river's flow is augmented by both from rainfall and , as well as substantial contributions from karstic aquifers in the limestone-dominated upper basin. The hydrological regime features seasonal variability, with peak flows occurring during spring snowmelt (–May) from highland tributaries and intense summer-autumn rainfall events that trigger flash floods. Winter lows are common due to reduced and frozen upper catchments, while extreme floods can reach discharges exceeding 2,480 m³/s, as recorded in historical events, with catastrophic peaks up to 5,000 m³/s during prolonged heavy rains. Over recent decades, hydrological patterns have shown alterations, including increased flood frequency linked to variability and upstream water diversions for , which reduce base flows in the lower reaches. The basin's is dominated by inputs, with rates of 600–700 mm annually, supporting high recharge but also elevating and loads estimated at significant volumes entering the .

History

Ancient Period

The Rioni River, identified in ancient sources as the Phasis, served as a central artery for early human occupation in western Georgia during the , with over 70 artificial settlement mounds (known as dikhagudzuba) constructed along its course and tributaries in the Colchian plain. These mounds, dating to the first half of the second millennium BC (e.g., 2008–1772 cal BC at the Orulu 2 site), were intentionally built using materials from surrounding moats to elevate living spaces above the swampy, flood-prone lowlands, facilitating , , and early as evidenced by geochemical traces of , , and in layers. By the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages (ca. 1600–600 BC), the region transitioned into the formative phase of the , with fortified settlements emerging along the Rioni valley, particularly in the area, which exerted regional influence. Sites such as Gabashvili and Dateshidze hills featured hilltop enclosures with defensive moats up to 10 meters wide, wattle-and-daub structures, and drainage canals, occupied from around 900–710 BC and supported by the river's navigable waters for resource transport in the marshy environment. The Bagrati settlement, with evidence spanning the Middle to Late , likely functioned as a religious center, highlighting the river's role in cultural and economic integration. The ancient kingdom of coalesced in the Early along the Phasis valley, inhabited by the Colchians, an indigenous people noted for their advanced burial practices and ties to Greek artistic influences, as seen in bronze artifacts from sites like Ergeta. The river facilitated trade and communication networks, connecting inland resources to the coast and enabling the kingdom's prosperity in iron processing and agriculture. In the Archaic and Classical periods (6th–4th centuries BC), Greek colonization introduced the Milesian settlement of Phasis near the Rioni delta, a dispersed emporion adapted to the marshy lowlands rather than a compact urban center, which bolstered Colchis's role in eastern Black Sea commerce. Archaeological traces at sites like Simagre and Sagvichio confirm occupation from this era, though tectonic subsidence from earthquakes (e.g., ca. 50 AD) has submerged many coastal layers up to 1.4 meters below modern sea level. Strabo and other ancient geographers emphasized the Phasis's navigability, underscoring its enduring function as a vital trade route linking Colchis to the Mediterranean world.

Medieval to Modern Developments

During the medieval period, the Rioni River, known historically as the Phasis, continued to serve as a vital artery for trade and communication in western Georgia, particularly in the kingdoms of and Samegrelo. By the , it facilitated regional connectivity, with at its mouth noted as a key stopover for pilgrims and traders, as recorded by Georgian Giorgi Mtatsmindeli during his journeys in 1066–1068. Trade flourished through Genoese and Venetian merchants, who in 1386 purchased significant quantities of —approximately 5.8 tons—from , transported via ships from Trebizond, alongside commodities like slaves, wine, salt, and fish. Venetian diplomat Ambrogio Contarini's 1473 account described as a Megrelian town under the rule of the Dadiani princes, highlighting its role in limited local production and exchange with . The river's strategic importance drew external powers, leading to conflicts and fortifications. In the , the constructed a fortress at in 1578 under Sultan Murad III to control access, which was destroyed in 1640 by allied forces from , , and Samegrelo. Rebuilt in 1723 by Ottoman commander Mehmed Aga with 50 cannons and 200 janissaries, it underscored the Rioni's role in regional power struggles. French traveler Jean Chardin noted the river's potential for upstream navigation from to , though practical limitations persisted due to shallow waters and seasonal flooding. Throughout this era, the Rioni connected inland agricultural heartlands to coastal ports, supporting the economic vitality of western Georgian principalities amid invasions by , , and Ottomans. Under Russian imperial expansion in the , the Rioni integrated into broader imperial trade networks following Georgia's in 1801. The river linked the expanding industrial center of to ports like , facilitating the export of raw silk, grains, and timber to . Russian engineers surveyed the waterway for improvements, though full remained challenging; historical accounts confirm its use for transport of goods upstream, enhancing connectivity between the hinterland and European markets. By the late , steam-powered vessels began tentative operations on the lower Rioni, marking early modernization efforts. In the Soviet era, the Rioni became central to Georgia's industrialization and energy production. The Rioni Hydroelectric Power Plant, operational since 1933 near , harnessed the river's flow to generate electricity for emerging industries, exemplifying Stalin-era "" initiatives that prioritized across the USSR. Additional small-scale plants dotted the basin by the 1960s, supporting urbanization and manufacturing in ; however, dams like Vartsikhe (built in the mid-20th century) fragmented habitats and altered flows, foreshadowing ecological tensions. Soviet planning emphasized the river's basin for and flood control, with large-scale campaigns in the 1950s–1980s aiming to stabilize its volatile . Post-Soviet developments have focused on expansion amid , but with growing environmental resistance. Following Georgia's independence in 1991, the of assets led to over 200 new hydroelectric agreements by 2024, many targeting the Rioni for "green" to meet EU integration goals. The proposed Namakhvani Cascade (initiated in 2015) aimed to build two large dams for 200 MW capacity, but sparked protests from 2020 onward over threats to , including the last spawning grounds of critically endangered ship sturgeon ( nudiventris). Construction was halted in 2021 amid campaigns but resumed in May 2025, highlighting ongoing tensions between development and conservation. Infrastructure like the 2022 Rioni River bridge near has improved connectivity, while basin management plans, adopted in 2023 under EU4Water, address flooding and from upstream . These efforts reflect the river's evolving role from a lifeline to a contested resource in modern Georgia.

Ecology

Biodiversity

The Rioni River basin, located within the , supports a rich array of flora and , including numerous endemic and adapted to its diverse habitats ranging from Colchic rainforests and wetlands to peatlands and riverine ecosystems. The basin has been designated as a Key Biodiversity Area due to its international significance for conserving globally threatened taxa, encompassing terrestrial and freshwater environments at elevations from 12 to 100 meters. Overall, the region harbors 44 globally threatened or near-threatened vascular plant species, reflecting the relict nature of the Colchic flora, alongside 50 threatened vertebrate species and 8 threatened invertebrates. Aquatic biodiversity is particularly notable, with the Rioni serving as the last functioning spawning river for sturgeons in the eastern basin and a stronghold for six critically endangered : beluga (Huso huso), Russian sturgeon (Acipenser gueldenstaedtii), stellate sturgeon (Acipenser stellatus), Colchic sturgeon (Acipenser persicus colchicus), ship sturgeon (Acipenser nudiventris), and (Acipenser sturio, now extinct in the basin but with historical records). These anadromous rely on the 's lower reaches for migration and reproduction, though populations have declined due to barriers and habitat degradation; for instance, a relict population of ship sturgeon persists, confirmed by recent genetic studies. Beyond sturgeons, the basin hosts endemic from the Colchic refugium, such as in the Barbus and Cobitis genera, detected through metabarcoding surveys that underscore the river's role in preserving ancient lineages. Terrestrial and riparian ecosystems further enhance the basin's ecological value, with relict Colchic rainforests and wetlands supporting diverse invertebrates, including threatened species like the Colchic crayfish (Astacus colchicus), and vertebrates such as migratory birds utilizing nearby flyways. Among the threatened plants, endemic medicinal species confined to habitats in the basin, such as those in the vicinity, highlight the area's botanical , comprising part of Georgia's 21% endemic vascular . Conservation efforts, including expansions to Kolkheti National Park, aim to protect these habitats and , emphasizing the Rioni's critical role in regional persistence.

Environmental Challenges

The Rioni River has faced significant threats from developments, particularly the Namakhvani Hydropower Plant (HPP) project, which was planned to construct two dams totaling over 500 feet in height and flood approximately 610 hectares of land, including unique biodiversity hotspots and cultural sites. These structures risked blocking migratory paths for critically endangered sturgeon species, such as the endemic Colchic sturgeon ( colchicus) and the ship sturgeon (Acipenser nudiventris), whose spawning grounds have already been reduced by more than 80% due to Soviet-era dams. The resulting disruption to water flow, , and nutrient cycles could lead to the extinction of these relict populations, as eggs and larvae are particularly vulnerable to altered river dynamics. Public protests beginning in 2020 led to a construction suspension in 2021 and ultimately the project's termination in 2023; ongoing legal disputes over the cancellation, including an award of $383 million to the developer in December 2024, continue as of November 2025, with the Georgian government announcing intentions to potentially resume in May 2025 but no construction restarting. Threats from other proposed projects, such as the Nenskra and Khudoni HPPs, persist. As of 2025, conservation efforts by organizations like WWF, Fauna & Flora International, and IUCN include ongoing population monitoring and advocacy for protected areas to safeguard sturgeon habitats. Water pollution exacerbates habitat degradation across the basin, with untreated and municipal directly discharged into the river, elevating levels of and other contaminants that harm aquatic life. Illegal dumpsites and landfills further contaminate surface and , while industrial activities—such as anchovy processing near Paliastomi Lake and operations extracting , sand, gravel, and —introduce and sediments that degrade water quality and disrupt ecosystems. , including the ( gibelio), compound these pressures by outcompeting native fish, contributing to an ongoing decline in freshwater documented through eDNA surveys. Climate change intensifies flooding and waterlogging in the Rioni basin, where humid subtropical conditions and deteriorating Soviet-era drainage infrastructure lead to frequent inundation of agricultural lands and sensitive wetlands like the Colchic Rainforests. Projected increases in extreme rainfall events are expected to overwhelm outdated pumping systems and canals, amplifying , degradation, and risks to rural livelihoods. Additionally, dams heighten seismic vulnerabilities, with potential for catastrophic failures in this earthquake-prone , as evidenced by past incidents like the Shuakhevi HPP tunnel collapses. Efforts to address these challenges include the development of a River Basin Management Plan, which emphasizes improved monitoring by Georgia's National Environmental Agency to mitigate pressures from , , and urban expansion.

Cultural and Economic Role

Mythological and Literary Importance

The Rioni River, known in antiquity as the Phasis, holds a central place in as the principal waterway of , the fabled kingdom at the eastern edge of the . In the myth of the , , led by , navigated the Phasis to reach the court of King , where the golden ram's fleece was guarded by a dragon. This quest, symbolizing heroic adventure and the pursuit of divine favor, positioned the river as the gateway to Colchis's legendary riches, including gold panned from its waters using fleeces—a practice echoed in ancient accounts of local mining techniques. The river's mythological significance extends to its personification as a river-god in Greek lore, embodying the fertile and mysterious landscapes of , home to the sorceress , who aided in obtaining the fleece. This narrative underscores themes of exile, magic, and cultural exchange between Greek heroes and eastern realms, with the Phasis marking the symbolic boundary of . Ancient sources describe the river's broad flow and dark waters as omens of the perils faced by upon arrival, reinforcing its role as a liminal space in mythic geography. Literarily, the Phasis features prominently in Apollonius Rhodius's (3rd century BCE), the epic poem that elaborates the Argonaut , where the river is depicted as the voyage's endpoint, with the heroes mooring their ship amid its currents to confront . Earlier references appear in Hesiod's (c. 700 BCE), linking the Phasis to Colchian territory, while historians like (Histories, 5th century BCE) and Strabo (, BCE) cite it as a key geographical marker, blending with ethnographic detail on Colchian customs and . These texts immortalized the river in Hellenistic and Roman , influencing later works on and .

Contemporary Uses and Infrastructure

The Rioni River plays a significant role in contemporary Georgia's water management, primarily supporting for in the Lowland. systems draw water from the Rioni and its tributaries, such as the Gubistskali and Tskhenistskali rivers, to irrigate approximately 38,283 hectares of used for crops including , cereals, , and fruits. These systems, largely established in the mid-20th century, face challenges from aging , with many canals non-operational since the due to funding shortages, leading to water losses and reduced agricultural productivity. Hydropower generation remains a key economic use of the river, with several operational plants contributing to Georgia's energy supply. The Rioni HPP, located at the confluence of the Rioni and Tskhenistskali rivers near , has an installed capacity of 57 MW and produces about 272 GWh annually; it operates as a run-of-the-river facility and was rehabilitated in recent years to increase efficiency. The Gumati Cascade, comprising Gumati I (48.4 MW, dam-type) and Gumati II (22.8 MW, run-of-the-river), is situated upstream on the Rioni and generates around 326 GWh per year combined, supporting regional electricity distribution since their integration into modern operations in 2007. These facilities, originally built during the Soviet era, underscore the river's importance in , though a proposed expansion like the Namakhvani Cascade (planned 435 MW capacity) faced significant opposition from environmental and groups and was ultimately cancelled in 2021. Infrastructure along the Rioni also includes flood protection measures to mitigate risks in flood-prone areas. Since 2019, the (UNDP), in partnership with the and Georgian authorities, has implemented projects at multiple sites in the Rioni basin, such as constructing 618 meters of berms in Gagma Kodori and 590 meters in Zemo Chaladidi to reinforce riverbanks and prevent . These initiatives, part of a broader US$74 million program covering eleven river basins, have enhanced resilience for communities by protecting farmland, homes, and roads from seasonal flooding. Additionally, the river supplies municipal water to , though growing demand has strained resources, prompting calls for improved diversion structures to ensure reliable 24-hour access. While historically navigable, the Rioni is no longer used for commercial transportation in modern times, with road and rail networks handling most freight in western Georgia. management poses ongoing challenges, as untreated from nearby urban areas occasionally discharges into the river, exacerbating in the lower basin. Overall, these uses and infrastructures highlight the Rioni's vital yet pressured role in sustaining , , and urban needs amid environmental vulnerabilities.

References

  1. https://mbmg.pensoft.net/article/96780/
  2. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/sturgeon_factsheet_rioni.pdf
  3. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100321824
  4. https://georgia.travel/kayaking-on-the-rioni-racha-lechkhumi
  5. https://oc-media.org/georgias-zombie-hydropower-projects/
  6. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/11973104.pdf
  7. https://water.gov.ge/public/images/news/pdf/1486.pdf
  8. https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/433
  9. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/359511468037489195/pdf/E15930Vol-01.pdf
  10. https://www.dpublication.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/3016.pdf
  11. https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/country-sites/en_ge/georgia/home/news/wrepsrpesia/07envbaseline.pdf
  12. https://dpanther.fiu.edu/record/7622/files/Technical_Report-15.-Detailed-Assessment-of-Lower-Rioni-Pilot-Watershed-Area-ENG.pdf
  13. https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/SP464.14
  14. http://drm.cenn.org/Local_Case_studies/Flood%20risk%20assessment%20and%20mitigation%20measures%20%20for%20%20the%20Rioni%20River.pdf
  15. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/gea.21994
  16. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00934690.2021.1993626
  17. https://www.academia.edu/41955890/Phasis_the_problem_of_location
  18. https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wat2.1492
  19. https://www.academia.edu/83663284/Phasis_and_its_Landscape_Preliminary_Report_of_the_Archaeological_Survey_of_the_Lower_Stream_of_the_Rioni_River_Delta
  20. https://journals.openedition.org/mediterranee/8317
  21. http://tsuti.tsu.ge/index.php/journal/article/download/14/2/2
  22. https://www.erih.net/how-it-started/industrial-history-of-european-countries/georgia
  23. https://corporatewatch.org/georgia-guardians-of-the-rioni-valley-face-off-the-dams/
  24. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0962629825001131
  25. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dams-threaten-last-sturgeon-spawning-grounds-rioni-river-georgia
  26. https://www.dw.com/en/hydropower-dams-threaten-georgias-haven-for-endangered-sturgeon/a-58731210
  27. https://sakartvelosambebi.ge/en/news/kobakhidze-work-has-begun-on-nenskra-khudoni-and-namakhvani-hpps
  28. https://eu4waterdata.eu/images/pdf/library/EU4WD_GE_Minutes_RBMP-Rioni-consultation-main-issues_1123_Eng.pdf
  29. https://www.transrivers.org/2021/3363/
  30. https://www.keybiodiversityareas.org/site/factsheet/46690
  31. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/14/12/1102
  32. https://biking4biodiversity.org/rioni-the-overlooked-refuge-of-sturgeons/
  33. https://ijcrr.com/uploads/2477_pdf.pdf
  34. https://bankwatch.org/blog/saving-private-rioni-georgia-s-growing-environmental-protest
  35. https://georgiatoday.ge/enka-wins-case-over-namakhvani-hpp-conflict/
  36. https://bm.ge/en/news/enka-demands-usd-450-mln-inside-georgias-costly-arbitration-defeat-over-namakhvani-hpp
  37. https://www.fauna-flora.org/projects/conserving-black-sea-sturgeon-georgia/
  38. https://iucnsos.org/projects/fostering-the-conservation-and-recovery-of-threatened-sturgeons-in-georgia/
  39. https://www.futurewater.eu/projects/climate-change-impact-on-drainage-in-west-georgia/
  40. https://www.theoi.com/Potamos/PotamosPhasis.html
  41. https://topostext.org/place/422417WPha
  42. https://grbs.library.duke.edu/index.php/grbs/article/download/2551/5899/15799
  43. http://www.energo-pro.com/en/where-we-are/georgia
  44. https://www.pietrangeli.com/cascade-hydropower-georgia/
  45. https://www.gem.wiki/Namakhvani_Cascade_Complex
  46. https://www.undp.org/georgia/stories/flood-protection-rivers
  47. https://eurasianet.org/georgia-infrastructure-delays-amplify-wastewater-woes
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.