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Romans 16
Epistle to the Romans 16:1,4–7, 11–12 in Papyrus 118 (verso side), written in the 3rd century
BookEpistle to the Romans
CategoryPauline epistles
Christian Bible partNew Testament
Order in the Christian part6

Romans 16 is the sixteenth and final chapter of the Epistle to the Romans in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. It was authored by Paul the Apostle, while Paul was in Corinth in the mid-50s AD,[1] with the help of a secretary (amanuensis), Tertius, who adds his own greeting in verse 22.[2]

While this chapter contains Paul's personal recommendation, personal greetings, final admonition, grace, greetings from companions, identification of its writer/amanuensis and a blessing,[3] Martin Luther notes that it

also includes a salutary warning against human doctrines which are preached alongside the Gospel and which do a great deal of harm. It's as though he had clearly seen that out of Rome and through the Romans would come the deceitful, harmful Canons and Decretals along with the entire brood and swarm of human laws and commands that is now drowning the whole world and has blotted out this letter and the whole of the Scriptures, along with the Spirit and faith. Nothing remains but the idol Belly, and St. Paul depicts those people here as its servants. God deliver us from them. Amen.[4]

Text

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This chapter is divided into 27 verses. The original text was written in Koine Greek: some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are:

Phoebe (verses 1–2)

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Main article: Phoebe (biblical figure)

1I commend to you our sister Phoebe, who is a servant of the church at Cenchrea, 2that you welcome her in the Lord in a manner worthy of the saints, and that you assist her in whatever matter she may have need of you, for she has been a helper of many and of myself as well.

— Romans 16:1–2, Modern English Version[5]

"Phoebe" is described as a "servant" (διακονον, diakonon) of the church in the New King James Version, as a "deacon" in the New International Version and the New Revised Standard Version, a "deaconess" in the Revised Standard Version and the Jerusalem Bible, and a "leader" in the Contemporary English Version. According to the contemporary idiom in The Message, she was "a key representative of the church at Cenchreae" (or Cenchrea).[6] The Jerusalem Bible suggests she was "probably the bearer of the letter" [7] and verse 2 suggests she also had other "business"[8] to deal with in Rome.

Priscilla and Aquila (verses 3–4)

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Main article: Priscilla and Aquila

3Greet Priscilla and Aquila, my fellow workers in Christ Jesus, 4who risked their own necks for my life, to whom not only I give thanks, but also all the churches of the Gentiles.

— Romans 16:3–4, New King James Version[9]

"Priscilla" is a diminutive and affectionate name for 'Prisca'. She and her husband, Aquila, were expelled from Rome as Jews under Claudius, and had been converted at Corinth by Paul (Acts 18:1).[10] Priscilla was remarkably mentioned first, perhaps inferring that she was "the more active and conspicuous of the two"[11] as also in Acts 18:18 and 2 Timothy 4:19; except in 1 Corinthians 16:19, where they send greetings, her husband takes precedence.[12]

Afterwards this married couple appear in Paul's company at Ephesus (Acts 18:18; Acts 18:26; 1 Corinthians 16:19). When this Epistle was written they were at Rome, but later they seem to have returned to Ephesus (2 Timothy 4:19).[11]

"Aquila" was a Jew of Pontus. There is another Jew named Aquila from Pontus (Sinope), living more than a century later, who made a translation of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) into Greek, critically compared with the Septuagint in the Hexapla of Origen.[11]

Andronicus and Junia (verse 7)

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Main articles: Andronicus of Pannonia and Junia (New Testament person)

Salute Andronicus and Junia, my kinsmen, and my fellow-prisoners, who are of note among the apostles, who also were in Christ before me.

— Romans 16:7, King James Version[13]

  • "Andronicus" was a kinsman of Paul and a fellow prisoner at some time, particularly well known among the apostles, who had become a follower of Jesus Christ before Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus, and whom Paul commended together with Junia as being remarkable Christian workers and "apostles" alongside Silas, Timothy, and others given that title in the early Church.[14]
  • "Junia": Despite the existence of a view in the past that this was a man named Junias (Ἰουνιᾶς or Ἰουνίας, the latter being the Hebrew name Yĕḥunnī), the consensus among most modern New Testament scholars is that this person was a woman named Junia (Ἰουνία),[15] whom Paul the Apostle may have considered as an apostle.[16] Craig Hill states that no example has been found for the masculine form 'Junias', while the feminine form of 'Junia' is "very well attested", so the rendering to 'Junias' in some Bible versions is a "scandalous mistranslation".[3]

Tertius (verse 22)

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Main article: Tertius of Iconium

I Tertius, who wrote this epistle, salute you in the Lord.

— Romans 16:22, King James Version[17]

"Tertius" was an amanuensis of the apostle, who wrote this letter, either from the apostle's notes, or from dictation.[18] His name is a Latin one, and perhaps the person might be a Roman, for the names Secundus, Tertius, Quartus, Quintus, etc. were common with the Romans, although it could be argued that this man was the same with Silas, which Hebrew word is the same as Tertius.[18] Silas is known as a companion of apostle Paul, also is numbered among the seventy disciples, and said to be bishop of Iconium (see Luke 10:1).[18] The phrase "in the Lord" could be connected with "wrote this epistle" and make the sense that Tertius wrote this epistle for the Lord's sake (not by inspiration, but being only scribe to the apostle). However, that phrase is better connected with the word "salute" and the sense is that his salutation was meant to wish the people well in the Lord, so that "they might have much communion with him".[18]

Gaius, Erastus and Quartus (verse 23)

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Main articles: Gaius (biblical figure), Erastus of Corinth, and Quartus

Gaius, my host and the host of the whole church, greets you. Erastus, the treasurer of the city, greets you, and Quartus, a brother.

— Romans 16:23, New King James Version[19]

  • "Erastus" (Greek: Ἔραστος, Erastos): also known as "Erastus of Paneas", was a steward (οἰκονόμος, oikonomos) in Corinth, a political office of high civic status. The word is defined as "the manager of household or of household affairs" or, in this context, "treasurer";[20] the King James Version uses the translation "chamberlain", while the New International Version uses "director of public works". An inscription mentioning an Erastus was found in 1929 near a paved area northeast of the theater of Corinth, dated to the mid-first century and reads "Erastus in return for his aedileship paved it at his own expense."[21] Some New Testament scholars have identified this aedile Erastus with the Erastus mentioned in the Epistle to the Romans but this is disputed by others.[22]
  • "Quartus": the description "a brother" is interpreted by most scholars as "a fellow believer", rather than 'a brother of Erastus'.[23] According to church tradition, he is known as "Quartus of Berytus", a bishop of Beirut (around AD 50) and one of the seventy disciples.[24][25]

Doxology (verse 24)

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Now to him who is able to establish you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery which was kept secret since the world began but now has been made manifest, and by the prophetic Scriptures has been made known to all nations, according to the commandment of the everlasting God, for obedience to the faith—to God, alone wise, be glory through Jesus Christ forever. Amen.

— Romans 16:24-27, King James Version[26]

Paul's doxology in the conclusion of the epistle, aside from effectively summing up some of the key themes, gives a high note of ascription of glory to "the only wise God".[27]

The Letter to the Romans contains textual variations across ancient manuscripts, particularly regarding the placement of the closing doxology (verses 16:24-27). This doxology appears in different locations in various manuscripts: after chapter 14 verse 23, after chapter 15 verse 33, or at its traditional location at the end of chapter 16. Additionally, some early manuscript versions contain shorter forms of the text, which scholars believe developed through the process of collecting and reading the letter in church services, rather than originating from Paul's original writing.[28][29]

Controversy

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There are many scholars who argue that the original letter ended with Romans 14:23 because they believe that this doxology (along with much of chapters 15 and 16) were added later to summarize the contents of the letter and to provide a less abrupt ending.[30] Some have said that the end of the original is in chapter 15.[31] There are Romans manuscripts which end in chapter 15 and other manuscripts place chapter 16 between chapters 14 and 15.[32]

Many translations exclude this verse altogether, skipping from verse 23 to verse 25, because most of the older manuscripts, discovered some time after chapter and verse numbers were applied to Romans, do not have them, it is generally omitted from the final translation.[33] Protestants usually omit verse 16:24 but the Anglican Church accepts it as canonical.[34]

Arland J. Hultgren said:

They are missing altogether in some Greek witnesses; alternatively, they appear at the end of chapter 14 in some Greek texts; and they appear after chapter 15 in others. (There are even more variations than these!) So many textual variations makes these verses highly suspect, causing one to question whether they were part of the version that came from the hand of Tertius, Paul’s amanuensis (Romans 16:22).[35]

See also

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References

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Sources

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Romans 16

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Romans 16 is the final chapter of the , a letter attributed to the Apostle Paul in the of the , consisting of 27 verses that primarily feature personal commendations, greetings to church members in , a warning against divisive teachings, and a glorifying . The chapter begins with Paul's recommendation of Phoebe, a of the church in Cenchreae who likely delivered the letter to , urging the recipients to assist her as she had supported many, including Paul himself. The bulk of Romans 16 comprises an extensive list of greetings to 26 individuals and groups, including prominent figures such as , who risked their lives for Paul, and Andronicus and Junia, described as outstanding among the apostles. These greetings highlight the diversity of the early Roman Christian community, encompassing Jewish and believers, men and women, slaves and free persons, and reflect the house-church structure of the time, with no central building mentioned. Notably, about one-third of the named individuals are women, underscoring their active roles in ministry and within the nascent church. Following the greetings, Paul issues a caution in verses 17–20 against those who cause divisions and promote teachings contrary to , emphasizing the need for unity and vigilance, before brief greetings from his companions in and a closing . The chapter concludes with a in verses 25–27, praising for strengthening believers through the revelation of the mystery of , now made known to all nations, which ties back to the letter's central themes of and inclusion of Gentiles. Scholarly analysis views Romans 16 as integral to the epistle's purpose of fostering unity in a multiethnic church amid cultural tensions, such as disputes over Jewish practices, and some early manuscripts suggest the doxology may have circulated separately, possibly indicating an original shorter ending to the letter.

Introduction

Overview and Context

Romans 16, the final chapter of Paul's , consists of a commendation of Phoebe in verses 1–2, a list of greetings to 26 individuals and several households in verses 3–16, warnings against those causing divisions in verses 17–20, additional greetings from Paul's associates including a note from the Tertius in verses 21–23, and a in verses 25–27. This structure transitions the from theological discourse to practical relational elements, highlighting personal networks within the early Christian movement. Composed around 57 CE during Paul's third missionary journey, the chapter was likely written from and addressed to the Christian in , a group Paul had not yet visited personally. The Roman church comprised diverse house churches blending Jewish and believers, shaped by events such as Claudius's expulsion of (including Jewish ) from in 49 CE, which temporarily altered its composition before their gradual return. This setting underscores the epistle's role in fostering connections across ethnic and cultural lines in a burgeoning, multiethnic faith . Within the broader , chapter 16 shifts from the doctrinal exposition of justification, sin, and grace in chapters 1–15 to personal commendations and greetings, emphasizing unity amid diversity. Key themes include community solidarity through mutual support, as a marker of Christian practice, and mission partnerships that extend Paul's apostolic work. These elements reinforce the epistle's overarching call for harmony between Jewish and believers, preparing the Roman church for Paul's anticipated visit and his westward mission.

Authorship and Purpose

The authorship of Romans 16 is attributed to the Apostle Paul, a consensus upheld by early such as , who quoted the as an authoritative Pauline text in the third century, and affirmed by modern across critical schools due to its consistent vocabulary, style, and theological alignment with undisputed Pauline letters. In verse 22, Tertius identifies himself as the scribe ("I, Tertius, who wrote down this letter, greet you in the "), indicating that Paul dictated the content in Greek to an , a common practice in the oral culture of first-century letter-writing where authors relied on secretaries for transcription without altering the primary voice. Scholars emphasize that Tertius's role was mechanical inscription rather than co-authorship, as evidenced by his limited personal greeting and inability to replicate Paul's characteristic phrasing. The chapter was composed during Paul's third missionary journey, likely in around AD 57, during a three-month stay in as he prepared to deliver aid to and anticipated a future visit to . This dictation reflects the epistolary norms of the era, where Paul's theological exposition in –15 on justification by and grace among and Gentiles sets the stage for the relational appeals in chapter 16. The primary purpose of Romans 16 was pastoral and relational: to build rapport with the Roman Christian community, whom Paul had not founded, by commending key traveling ministers such as Phoebe—a and benefactor from Cenchreae—and fostering unity amid tensions between Jewish and believers through inclusive greetings that highlight shared faith. It also served to prepare the ground for Paul's planned visit, as referenced in Romans 15:24, by encouraging and in a diverse church facing potential divisions. Scholarly debates on the chapter's unity with the rest of Romans persist, with some early views—dating to the second century—treating it as a detachable fragment possibly intended for another destination, such as , based on manuscripts like that conclude at chapter 15. However, the majority of contemporary scholars affirm its original placement in Romans, supported by the majority of Greek manuscripts, internal thematic coherence, and the personal connections that integrate it seamlessly with the epistle's exhortations to unity.

Main Body (Verses 1–23)

Greetings and Commendations (1–16)

Romans 16:1–16 opens with Paul's commendation of Phoebe, a (diakonos) of the church in Cenchreae and a benefactor (prostatis) to many, including Paul himself, who likely served as the carrier of the letter to . This introduction sets the tone for the subsequent greetings to approximately 26 individuals and groups, including nine women, underscoring the collaborative nature of early . The section concludes with an exhortation for the recipients to greet one another with a holy kiss, emphasizing mutual affection within the community. Among the notable figures greeted are , described as fellow workers in Christ who risked their lives for Paul and hosted a house church, reflecting their pivotal role in missionary efforts across regions like and . Epaenetus is highlighted as the first convert to Christ in , symbolizing the foundational impact of early evangelism in that province. Mary is commended for her (kopiaō) among the Roman believers, a term often associated with apostolic toil. Andronicus and Junia, identified as fellow prisoners and outstanding among the s (episēmoi en tois apostolois), are noted for their kinsmen status with Paul; scholarly debate surrounds Junia's gender, with evidence supporting her as a , though some interpretations render the name masculine as Junias. Other women include Tryphena and Tryphosa, sisters or close associates who labored in the Lord, and , another devoted worker. Rufus is greeted as chosen in the Lord, with his mother viewed as a maternal figure to Paul, possibly linking to from the Gospels. The list also encompasses Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, Philologus, Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas, alongside unnamed households and saints, indicating interconnected house churches. Thematically, these greetings reveal Paul's extensive personal network spanning Jewish and Gentile believers, slaves and freedmen, and multiple socioeconomic strata, fostering a sense of ethnic and social diversity within the Roman church. The prominence of women—such as Phoebe in leadership, Priscilla in teaching, and Junia in apostolic recognition—highlights their integral contributions to ministry, challenging later interpretive biases that minimized female roles. References to household churches, like those of Priscilla and Aquila or Aristobulus, point to decentralized yet unified communal structures. Jewish names, such as Herodion, further attest to the inclusion of Paul's kin, promoting cross-cultural fellowship. This section's significance lies in its affirmation of the Roman church's maturity and interconnectedness, despite Paul's lack of direct oversight, by encouraging reciprocal greetings that reinforce and mutual support in Christian fellowship. It models the missional implications of relational ties, demonstrating how personal commendations built a resilient, diverse community aligned with Paul's broader vision of unity among believers.

Warnings Against Division (17–20)

In Romans 16:17–20, Paul shifts from commendations to a urgent exhortation for the Roman church to maintain doctrinal purity and communal harmony by vigilantly opposing internal threats. He appeals to the believers, saying, "I appeal to you, brothers, to take note of those who create divisions and temptations and are contrary to the that you have been taught; avoid them" (v. 17, ESV). This directive emphasizes active discernment, urging identification and separation from disruptors who undermine the unity fostered through the gospel message Paul has outlined throughout the letter. Paul further characterizes these adversaries in verse 18 as individuals who "do not serve our Lord Christ, but their own appetites, and by smooth talk and flattery they deceive the hearts of the naive" (ESV). Such deceivers prioritize personal gain over Christ-centered service, employing persuasive rhetoric to exploit the unsuspecting, which highlights the need for spiritual maturity amid potential factionalism. In verse 19, Paul acknowledges the positive reputation of the Roman believers' obedience, stating, "For your obedience is known to all, so that I rejoice over you, but I want you to be wise as to what is good and innocent as to what is evil" (ESV). This praise serves as encouragement, reinforcing their strength while calling for ethical wisdom that complements their faithfulness. The section culminates in verse 20a with an eschatological promise: "The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet" (ESV), evoking Genesis 3:15's protoevangelium and assuring divine triumph over evil forces behind division. Verse 20b offers a benediction: "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with you" (ESV), invoking Christ's enabling power for perseverance. Historically, this passage likely addresses threats from Judaizing teachers who promoted legalistic practices, fostering divisions in the mixed Jewish-Gentile congregations of around A.D. 57–58. These influencers, akin to those Paul confronted in , sought to impose and observance on Gentiles, contrary to the freedom of emphasized in Romans. While not explicitly proto-Gnostic, the "" description may allude to early speculative or elements that could exacerbate factionalism in diverse churches. The warnings thus protect the community's unity, echoing the affectionate "holy kiss" greeting of verse 16 as a symbol of relational . Theologically, these verses balance divine grace with the call to human discernment, portraying obedience not as legalism but as wise navigation of good and evil under God's sovereignty. The promise in verse 20a underscores Pauline eschatology, where Satan's defeat aligns with Christ's ultimate victory, imminent in the apostle's expectation of parousia, providing hope amid present struggles. This eschatological assurance ties to broader themes in Paul's writings, such as the believer's role in cosmic conflict (e.g., 1 Corinthians 15:24–25), emphasizing that unity in doctrine leads to participation in God's triumph over adversarial powers.

Closing Greetings from Associates (21–23)

In Romans 16:21–23, Paul relays greetings from his associates in , where he composed the epistle, marking a transition from commendations to the Roman church to endorsements from his immediate circle of collaborators. Timothy, described as Paul's fellow worker, is a prominent co-author and companion mentioned across several Pauline letters, including Philippians 1:1 and 1 Thessalonians 1:1, underscoring his integral role in early Christian outreach. Lucius, , and Sosipater are identified as Paul's kinsmen, likely referring to fellow sharing ethnic ties, which highlights the involvement of Jewish believers in Paul's ministry despite tensions within the early church. Tertius, the who penned the letter under Paul's dictation, inserts a personal greeting in verse 22, "I, Tertius, who write this letter, greet you in the ," revealing the collaborative and human elements of ancient epistolary composition. The name Tertius, meaning "third" in Latin, was common among slaves or freedmen, though his remains uncertain; as , he likely transcribed Paul's words in or longhand, with Paul reviewing the final text for accuracy. This note personalizes the otherwise formal dictation process, emphasizing the shared labor in producing sacred writings. Verse 23 features greetings from , who hosted both Paul and the entire Corinthian church, and from Erastus, the city's ( tēs poleōs), along with Quartus, simply called "a brother" in the faith with no further details provided. , one of Paul's earliest converts in as noted in 1 Corinthians 1:14, exemplified by opening his home—possibly that of Titus Justus from Acts 18:7—for communal gatherings and Paul's stay during the letter's writing. Erastus's high civic position as a financial represents a rare instance of an elite Roman convert, while Quartus's modest mention illustrates the inclusive nature of , encompassing all social strata. These greetings illuminate the interconnected networks of , shifting focus from to 's supportive community and demonstrating how personal relationships fueled mission work across the Mediterranean. The inclusion of diverse figures—from missionaries like Timothy to officials like Erastus—reveals a collaborative ministry transcending ethnic and class boundaries. Archaeological evidence bolsters the historical plausibility of Erastus's role: a mid-1st century CE limestone pavement inscription in Corinth, discovered in 1929 near the theater, reads "Erastus, in return for his aedileship, laid [this pavement] at his own expense," linking the name and civic function to the era of Paul's visit around 55–57 CE, though direct identification remains debated.

Doxology and Conclusion (Verses 24–27)

Text of the Doxology

The doxology of Romans 16:25–27 praises God for empowering believers through the gospel, which unveils a long-hidden mystery now proclaimed to all nations to foster obedience rooted in faith, culminating in eternal glory to the only wise God through Jesus Christ.
Now to him who is able to strengthen you according to my gospel and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery that was kept secret for long ages but has now been disclosed and through the prophetic writings has been made known to all nations, according to the command of the eternal God, to bring about the obedience of faith— to the only wise God be glory forevermore through Jesus Christ! Amen.
This passage constitutes a single, extended sentence in the original Greek, totaling 53 words, and functions as a formal liturgical expression of that encapsulates key themes from the , such as divine strength, proclamation, and universal revelation. Its structure highlights Trinitarian dimensions by ascribing strengthening power to , centering the on Christ, and alluding to the prophetic scriptures as instruments of divine disclosure, with the implied in their inspiration. The form draws on precedents for doxological , particularly echoing the concluding of :18–19, which blesses the Lord's wondrous deeds and glorious name forever, thereby framing Paul's words as a fulfillment of scriptural patterns of eternal ascription of glory. Positioned after the extended greetings and commendations in verses 1–23, the provides a grand, worshipful capstone to the chapter and the entire letter to the Romans, shifting from personal notes to transcendent adoration. Verse 24, a brief grace ("The grace of our Christ be with you all. ."), is absent from the earliest manuscripts and is widely regarded as a later , possibly to provide a typical Pauline closing before the . As an early example of structured praise, this exhibits traits of pre-Pauline liturgical tradition, including rhythmic phrasing and thematic summation suitable for communal recitation, and it contributed to the development of later Christian creeds and hymns by modeling concise, theologically dense formulas for glorifying God's redemptive plan.

Theological Significance

The doxology in Romans 16:25–27 reinforces central themes of Pauline theology by encapsulating the epistle's proclamation of the gospel as the revelation of a divine mystery long hidden but now manifested through Jesus Christ, particularly the inclusion of Gentiles alongside Jews in God's redemptive plan (cf. Romans 11:25). This ties directly to Romans' emphasis on universal salvation, portraying God's wisdom in orchestrating redemption across ethnic boundaries, as the gospel is made known to all nations for the obedience of faith. Douglas Moo highlights this universal applicability, noting how the doxology underscores the gospel's power to unite diverse peoples under Christ's lordship. C.E.B. Cranfield further connects it to the prophetic Scriptures, which bear witness to this mystery, affirming God's multifaceted wisdom in salvation history. Eschatologically, the emphasizes eternal glory to the only wise through Christ, presenting a hopeful contrast to the temporal divisions and false teachings warned against earlier in the chapter, and pointing believers toward the ultimate fulfillment of 's purposes in to come. This focus on future glory aligns with Romans' broader narrative of justification leading to eternal life, inviting readers to anchor their hope in divine sovereignty amid present trials. In its liturgical form, the models a worshipful conclusion to Paul's letters, structuring praise around power, the gospel's revelation, and eternal , which has influenced practices by providing a template for ascribing glory to . It echoes earlier biblical hymns, fostering a pattern of theological reflection culminating in adoration that resonates in Protestant traditions. For contemporary application, the doxology underscores the inseparable link between faith and obedience, calling modern churches to embody the gospel's unifying power in diverse communities, countering sectarianism by promoting harmony among believers from varied backgrounds. This relevance extends to ecumenical efforts, where the mystery's revelation challenges divisions and affirms God's intent for a global body of Christ.

Textual History and Variants

Manuscript Displacements

The textual history of Romans 16 reveals significant variations in the placement of its concluding doxology (verses 25–27), reflecting the fluidity of early manuscript transmission. In Marcion's second-century canon, the Epistle to the Romans was abbreviated, likely omitting chapters 15 and 16 entirely, with the epistle ending around verse 14:23; the doxology itself was either omitted or positioned earlier to align with Marcion's theological edits, which rejected material emphasizing continuity with Jewish traditions. This shorter form influenced discussions of the epistle's original length, though direct evidence for the doxology's exact placement in Marcion's text is inferred from patristic critiques like Tertullian's, which do not reference chapters 15–16. Among surviving Greek manuscripts, the appears in diverse positions, indicating scribal rearrangements possibly intended to restore a perceived fuller text against abbreviated versions like Marcion's. The earliest witness, the third-century (P⁴⁶), places it after Romans 15:33, treating verses 16:1–23 as an appendix of personal greetings before transitioning to . In contrast, the fourth-century (ℵ) and (B) position it after 16:23, marking the end of the proper and aligning with the majority of later uncials and minuscules. A minority of manuscripts, such as L and Ψ (both ninth century but reflecting earlier traditions), insert the after 14:23, sometimes duplicating it at 16:25–27, which scholars attribute to liturgical practices or efforts to conclude shorter recensions of the letter. These displacements suggest that copyists may have added or relocated the to counter abbreviated editions, ensuring the 's comprehensive theological closure. Another notable variant involves verse 24, a brief reading "The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. ." This appears after verse 23 in the Byzantine majority text and the but is absent in the earliest witnesses, including P⁴⁶, Sinaiticus, and Vaticanus. Scholars view it as a secondary scribal insertion, harmonizing with similar closings in other Pauline letters like 1 Corinthians 16:23, rather than an original element. The scholarly consensus, as articulated in Bruce M. Metzger's A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, attributes these displacements to copyist errors, such as accidental omissions during dictation or deliberate liturgical insertions to adapt the text for worship settings. While the variants highlight the transmission's fluidity—particularly in response to heretical shortenings like Marcion's—they affirm the chapter's overall authenticity, as the doxology's content aligns with Pauline themes of divine mystery and gospel proclamation. These textual issues primarily affect perceptions of the epistle's length, with shorter forms implying a more concise original addressed to Rome, but they exert no significant impact on core doctrinal elements such as justification or unity in Christ.

Interpretive Controversies

One of the most prominent interpretive controversies in Romans 16 centers on the identity and gender of the figure named Iounian in verse 7, traditionally rendered as "Junia," whom Paul describes as prominent among the apostles alongside Andronicus. Early church fathers such as Chrysostom and interpreted Iounian as a feminine name, referring to a and likely the wife of Andronicus, both recognized as s in the broad sense of authoritative messengers in the early Christian movement. However, starting in the , scholars like reinterpreted the name as the masculine "Junias," arguing it could not refer to a female apostle due to prevailing views on gender roles in ministry; this shift influenced translations such as the and later versions, effectively erasing Junia's female identity for centuries. Modern linguistic analysis has overwhelmingly reversed this interpretation, with lexicons like the Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich (BDAG) classifying Iounian as the accusative form of the feminine name Ἰουνία (Iounia), a common Latin name borne by women in the , rather than a rare masculine form. This consensus is reflected in contemporary translations, including the 2011 edition of the (NIV), which renders the name as "Junia" and affirms her status as "outstanding among the apostles." The debate underscores broader questions about women's roles in , as recognizing Junia as a female challenges patriarchal assumptions and highlights inclusive patterns in Paul's networks. A related controversy concerns the meaning of "apostles" (ἀπόστολοι) in verse 7, where some interpreters argue it denotes the Twelve Apostles or a narrow circle of foundational leaders, excluding Andronicus and Junia from such status. In Pauline usage, however, the term more frequently signifies "messengers" or emissaries commissioned for mission work, as seen in contexts like 2 Corinthians 8:23, allowing for a wider application that includes prominent figures like Junia without implying equivalence to the original apostles. Similarly, Phoebe's designation as a diakonos (often translated "" or "minister") of the church in Cenchreae (verse 1) has sparked debate over women's ordained leadership; while some translations soften it to "servant" to avoid implications of formal office, scholarly consensus views diakonos here as an official role, paralleling Paul's self-identification as a diakonos in Romans 15:8 and Colossians 1:23, thus affirming Phoebe's authoritative service. Ethnic identities in the greetings also invite interpretive discussion, particularly in verse 13, whom Paul calls "chosen in the " and whose served as a surrogate parent to Paul. Some scholars link this to the son of mentioned in :21, suggesting North African (Libyan) Jewish heritage, which would underscore the diverse ethnic composition of Roman house churches, though the identification remains conjectural and not universally accepted. Post-2000 scholarship, notably Eldon Jay Epp's 2005 monograph Junia: The First Woman Apostle, has exposed how 16th- and 17th-century reinterpretations stemmed from patriarchal biases rather than textual evidence, influencing translations and commentaries until and revived the feminine reading. Ongoing studies emphasize inclusivity in early Christian communities, with no significant shifts in consensus since, though debates persist in conservative circles over implications for contemporary gender roles. Broader controversies include the complete omission of chapters 15 and 16, encompassing verses 17–20, in a few Western textual traditions, such as three (am, demid, harl); most modern critical editions retain verses 17–20 as authentic Pauline material. Some scholars, such as Robert Jewett, have argued that verses 17–20a represent a non-Pauline based on stylistic grounds, but this minority view lacks supporting evidence.

References

  1. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+16&version=NIV
  2. https://www.bibleproject.com/guides/book-of-romans/
  3. https://enduringword.com/bible-commentary/romans-16/
  4. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00145246241287148
  5. https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/scn/romans-16.html
  6. https://thescripturecache.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Romans-16%25E2%2580%2594a-Commentary.pdf
  7. https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2305-08532019000200009
  8. https://rsc.byu.edu/how-new-testament-came-be/occasional-nature-composition-structure-pauls-letters
  9. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/course/introduction-to-romans/
  10. https://www.biola.edu/blogs/good-book-blog/2012/something-about-the-book-of-romans-that-will-help-you-really-get-it
  11. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=8&article=1082&context=mi&type=additional
  12. https://www.logos.com/grow/min-romans-on-church-unity/
  13. https://plymouthbrethren.org/article/4971
  14. https://www.biblehub.com/q/who_wrote_the_book_of_romans.htm
  15. https://www.thomasnelsonbibles.com/blog/who-wrote-the-book-of-romans/
  16. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/tertius-in-the-margins-a-critical-appraisal-of-the-secretary-hypothesis/9ABE77E71239797004BF0BCE66E4D43F
  17. https://www.academia.edu/7165938/_I_Tertius_Secretary_or_Co_Author_of_Romans_
  18. https://insight.org/resources/bible/the-pauline-epistles/romans
  19. https://www.gotquestions.org/when-was-Romans-written.html
  20. https://www.cbeinternational.org/resource/chapter-16-pauls-letter-romans/
  21. https://www.bible.org/seriespage/38-paul%25E2%2580%2599s-greetings-romans-161-16
  22. https://hermeneutics.stackexchange.com/questions/58915/evidence-for-against-romans-chapter-16-being-a-later-addition-to-the-text
  23. https://translation.bible/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/omanson-1998-who-s-who-in-romans-16-identifying-men-and-women-among-the-people-paul-sent-greetings-to.pdf
  24. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/greetings-of-romans-16-and-the-audience-of-romans/49FF02E5FC4C5779D1B98A9A40EEB2A4
  25. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=cgm_rom
  26. https://aspjournals.org/ajess/index.php/ajess/article/download/257/266/363
  27. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi-viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=cgm_rom
  28. https://biblicalscholarship.wordpress.com/2016/10/13/commentary-on-romans-1617-20/
  29. https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/mhm/romans-16.html#verses-17
  30. https://www.truthmagazine.com/romans-16-mark-them-that-are-causing-the-divisions
  31. https://www.studylight.org/commentaries/eng/bcc/romans-16.html#verse-17
  32. https://tidings.org/articles/all-gods-children-have-names-part-10/
  33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43048733
  34. https://www.desiringgod.org/messages/the-god-of-peace-will-soon-crush-satan-under-your-feet
  35. https://biblicalscholarship.wordpress.com/2016/10/14/commentary-on-romans-1621-23/
  36. https://www.thebiblesays.com/en/commentary/rom%2B16:21
  37. https://readingacts.com/2016/09/12/who-was-tertius-romans-1622/
  38. https://generositymonk.com/2018/10/19/f-f-bruce-gaius-the-host/
  39. https://www.blueletterbible.org/comm/maclaren_alexander/expositions-of-holy-scripture/romans/quartus-a-brother.cfm
  40. https://www.tyndalebulletin.org/article/30502-another-corinthian-erastus-inscription.pdf
  41. https://www.workingpreacher.org/commentaries/revised-common-lectionary/fourth-sunday-of-advent-2/commentary-on-romans-1625-27-3
  42. https://answersingenesis.org/who-is-god/the-trinity/prayer-and-trinity/
  43. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/commentary/romans/
  44. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362150617_The_Origins_of_the_Romans_16_Doxology_Reconsidering_Its_Form_and_Provenance
  45. https://bible.org/seriespage/lesson-108-goal-gospel-glory-god-romans-1625-27
  46. https://www.preceptaustin.org/romans_1625-27
  47. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004715738/BP000028.xml
  48. https://gnosis.study/library/%25D0%2593%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B8%25D1%2581/%25D0%2598%25D1%2581%25D1%2581%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D1%258F/ENG/Knox%2520J.%2520-%2520Marcion%2520and%2520The%2520New%2520Testament.%2520An%2520Essay%2520in%2520the%2520Early%2520History%2520of%2520the%2520Canon.pdf
  49. https://www.obinfonet.ro/docs/exeg/exegrex/text-ntcomm.pdf
  50. https://puritanboard.com/threads/the-location-of-the-concluding-doxology-romans.86820/
  51. https://wordsofgrace.blog/2021/10/13/those-brackets-around-romans-1624/
  52. https://www.augsburgfortress.org/store/product/2716/Junia-The-First-Woman-Apostle
  53. https://etsjets.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/files_JETS-PDFs_63_63-3_JETS_63.3_517-33_Ng.pdf
  54. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1235&context=eleu
  55. https://translation.bible/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/arichea-1988-who-was-phoebe-translating-diakonos-in-romans-16-1.pdf
  56. https://www.bibleref.com/Romans/16/Romans-16-13.html
  57. https://ia800208.us.archive.org/9/items/TheTextOfNewTestament4thEdit/TheTextOfNewTestament4thEdit.pdf
  58. https://www.academia.edu/3147186/Romans_A_Commentary_Hermeneia_A_Critical_and_Historic_Commentary_on_the_Bible
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