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Sivas
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Sivas is a city in central Turkey. It is the seat of Sivas Province and Sivas District.[2] Its population is 365,274 (2022).[1]
Key Information
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The city, which lies at an elevation of 1,278 metres (4,193 ft) in the broad valley of the Kızılırmak river, is a moderately sized trade centre and industrial city, although the economy has traditionally been based on agriculture. Rail repair shops and a thriving manufacturing industry of rugs, bricks, cement, and cotton and woolen textiles form the mainstays of the city's economy. The surrounding region is a cereal-producing area with large deposits of iron ore which are worked at Divriği.
Sivas is also a communications hub for the north–south and east–west trade routes to Iraq and Iran, respectively. With the development of railways, the city gained new economic importance as junction of important rail lines linking the cities of Ankara, Kayseri, Samsun, and Erzurum. The city is linked by air to Istanbul and İzmir. The popular name Sebastian derives from Sebastianòs, Σεβαστιανός, meaning someone from the city of Sebastia.[3][4]
Name
[edit]The name of the city is a truncated form of its Byzantine Greek name Sivasteia[5] from the Koine Greek name Sebasteia (Σεβάστεια), meaning that it was named in honour of an emperor using the title Sebastos, the Greek equivalent of Augustus.[3][additional citation(s) needed] In Armenian it is Sebastia (Սեբաստիա).[6] In Kurdish it is called Sêwas.[7]
History
[edit]Ancient history
[edit]
Little is known of Sivas' history prior to its emergence in the Roman period. In 64 BC, as part of his reorganization of Asia Minor after the Third Mithridatic War, Pompey the Great founded a city on the site called "Megalopolis".[8] Numismatic evidence suggests that Megalopolis changed its name in the last years of the 1st century BC to "Sebaste", the feminine form of Sebastos, the Greek equivalent of Augustus.
The name "Sivas" is the Turkish version deriving from the name Sebasteia, as the city was known during the late Roman (Byzantine) empire. Sebasteia became the capital of the province of Armenia Minor under the emperor Diocletian, was a town of some importance in the early history of the Christian Church; in the 4th century it was the home of Saint Blaise and Saint Peter of Sebaste, bishops of the town, and of Eustathius, one of the early founders of monasticism in Asia Minor. It was also the place of martyrdom of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, also 4th century. In 536, Justinian I made it the capital of Armenia Secunda and refortified it.[9]
Medieval history
[edit]The city was sacked by the troops of Muhammad ibn Marwan in 692 and became first a kleisoura and in 911 a theme. Under Nikephoros II Phokas, many Armenians settled in the region.[9] In the early 1020s, Basil II delivered the region around Sebasteia in exchange for Vaspurakan to King Seneqerim Ardzruni, who settled in Sebasteia with thousands of his Armenian followers.[10]
Sebasteia was the first important city to be plundered by Turkish tribes in 1059.[11] In August of that year the troops of various emirs gathered before the unwalled city. Initially they hesitated to sack it, mistaking the domes of the city's several Christian churches for tents of military camps. As soon as they realized that the city was defenceless they burned it for eight days, slaughtered a large part of its population and took many prisoners.[12] The city came under the domain of the Turkmen Danishmend dynasty (1071–1174) after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. After the death of Danişmend Gazi, Sivas passed to Nizamettin Yağıbasan who won it after a struggle with Danişmend Gazi's successors. In 1143 the Seljuk ruler Mesud I sacked the city.[13] In 1174 the city was captured by Kilij Arslan II and periodically served as capital of the Sultanate of Rum along with Iconium. Under Seljuk rule, Sivas was an important center of trade along the Silk Road and site of a citadel, along with mosques and madrasas (Islamic educational institutions), four of which survive today and one of which houses the Sivas Museum. Then it passed to the Ilkhanids, Eretna and Kadı Burhanettin.
Ottoman period
[edit]
The city was acquired by Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I (1389–1402). In 1398, Tamerlane swept into the area and his forces destroyed the city in 1400, after which it was recaptured by the Ottomans in 1408.[15] Under the Ottomans, Sivas served as the administrative center of the Eyalet of Rum[10] until about the late 19th century. The Armenian Apostolic Church maintained six Armenian churches in Sivas, being the Meryemana, Surp Sarkis, Surp Minas, Surp Prgitsh, Surp Hagop, and Surp Kevork; four monasteries, Surp Nschan, Surp Hreshdagabed, Surp Anabad, and Surp Hntragadar; an Armenian Apostolic orphanage, and several schools. The Armenian Catholic Church and the Latins also had one church and a metropolitan of Sebastea, as did the Greek Orthodox Church.[16] Two Protestant churches and eight, mostly German- and American-staffed, schools. During the genocide against Armenians as well as during the genocide against Greek Christians from July 5, 1915 onward, the Christian community of Sivas was exterminated during deportations and mass executions.[17]
Turkish Republic period
[edit]
The Sivas Congress (Heyet-i Temsiliye) was held in this city 4–11 September 1919.[18] With the arrival of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938), the founder of the Turkish Republic, from Amasya, the Congress of Sivas is considered a turning point in the formation of the Turkish Republic. It was at this congress that Atatürk's position as chair of the executive committee of the national resistance was confirmed (see Turkish War of Independence). Sivas was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 500 lira banknote of 1927–1939.[19]
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On 2 July 1993, 37 participants in an Alevi cultural and literary festival were killed when a mob of demonstrators set fire to the Madımak hotel in Sivas during a violent protest by some 15,000 members of various radical Islamist groups against the presence of Aziz Nesin. The deaths resulted in the Turkish government taking a harder stance against religious fanaticism, militant Islam, and antisecularism. In late 2006, there was a campaign by the Pir Sultan Abdal Cultural Institute to convert the former hotel into a museum to commemorate the tragedy, now known as the Sivas massacre.
Demographics
[edit]In the mid 19th century, Sivas had 17,000 inhabitants, with a majority of Muslim Turks.[20] In 1914, Sivas had 45,000 inhabitants: a third were Armenians, the rest Turks and 1,500 Greeks.[20] In July 1915, Armenian families were deported as part of the Armenian genocide.[20] Greeks were removed as part of the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[20] In 1925, there were 3,000 Armenians left around Sivas.[20] By 1929, Armenians numbered 1,200. In 1939 the total population was 35,000, including 2000 Armenians.[20] In the 1970s, there were 300 Armenians.[20] In the 1990s, there were 50 Armenians.[20]
Climate
[edit]Sivas has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dsb, Trewartha: Dcbo), with warm, dry summers and cold, snowy winters. The driest months are July and August and the wettest are April and May.
| Climate data for Sivas (1991–2020, extremes 1930–2023) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 18.6 (65.5) |
18.1 (64.6) |
25.2 (77.4) |
29.5 (85.1) |
33.5 (92.3) |
35.5 (95.9) |
40.0 (104.0) |
39.9 (103.8) |
37.0 (98.6) |
30.5 (86.9) |
24.0 (75.2) |
19.4 (66.9) |
40.0 (104.0) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 1.7 (35.1) |
3.5 (38.3) |
9.5 (49.1) |
15.9 (60.6) |
20.7 (69.3) |
25.1 (77.2) |
29.0 (84.2) |
29.7 (85.5) |
25.5 (77.9) |
19.3 (66.7) |
11.2 (52.2) |
4.2 (39.6) |
16.3 (61.3) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.7 (27.1) |
−1.6 (29.1) |
3.8 (38.8) |
9.3 (48.7) |
13.7 (56.7) |
17.7 (63.9) |
20.8 (69.4) |
21.1 (70.0) |
17.0 (62.6) |
11.6 (52.9) |
4.7 (40.5) |
−0.2 (31.6) |
9.6 (49.3) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −6.2 (20.8) |
−5.7 (21.7) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
3.7 (38.7) |
7.6 (45.7) |
10.8 (51.4) |
13.2 (55.8) |
13.3 (55.9) |
9.5 (49.1) |
5.3 (41.5) |
−0.3 (31.5) |
−3.7 (25.3) |
3.9 (39.0) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −31.2 (−24.2) |
−34.4 (−29.9) |
−27.6 (−17.7) |
−11.0 (12.2) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−0.6 (30.9) |
3.0 (37.4) |
3.2 (37.8) |
−3.8 (25.2) |
−9.0 (15.8) |
−24.4 (−11.9) |
−30.2 (−22.4) |
−34.4 (−29.9) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 44.6 (1.76) |
41.0 (1.61) |
48.4 (1.91) |
59.0 (2.32) |
64.6 (2.54) |
35.1 (1.38) |
11.1 (0.44) |
7.1 (0.28) |
19.2 (0.76) |
37.5 (1.48) |
42.1 (1.66) |
45.7 (1.80) |
455.4 (17.93) |
| Average precipitation days | 13.17 | 12.03 | 14.23 | 13.77 | 14.43 | 9.60 | 2.43 | 2.50 | 4.70 | 8.60 | 9.20 | 12.43 | 117.09 |
| Average snowy days | 12.52 | 9.52 | 6.43 | 1.19 | 0.13 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.48 | 2.33 | 7.10 | 39.7 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 76.8 | 74.1 | 67.2 | 61.6 | 62.4 | 60.2 | 55.8 | 55.3 | 56.6 | 63.5 | 70.5 | 76.7 | 65.0 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 81.1 | 104.4 | 153.2 | 196.2 | 238.7 | 302.7 | 355.6 | 352.7 | 280.6 | 195.7 | 127.1 | 73.7 | 2,455.1 |
| Mean daily sunshine hours | 2.7 | 3.7 | 5.0 | 6.6 | 8.0 | 10.1 | 11.5 | 11.4 | 9.4 | 6.3 | 4.2 | 2.4 | 6.8 |
| Source 1: Turkish State Meteorological Service[21] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: NOAA (humidity, sun 1991-2020)[22] Meteomanz(snow days 2000-2020)[23] | |||||||||||||
Economy
[edit]
Historically, Sivas was known for producing cereal.
Sights
[edit]
A cultural hub as well as an industrial one, Sivas contains many examples of 12th and 13th-century Seljuk architecture. The Great Mosque (Ulu Cami) of Sivas was first built in 1197.[14] The Sifaiye Medresesi was completed in 1217–1218 and served as a darüşşifa (hospital and medical school). It has a four-iwan layout typical of Seljuk madrasas and is fronted by an elaborately carved entrance portal. It also contains the tomb of its founder, the Seljuk sultan Izz al-Din Kayka'us I (d. 1220).[14] In 1271–1272, when the city was under Ilkhanid influence, three different madrasas were built by competing patrons: the Buruciye Medrese, the Çifte Minare Medresesi, and the Gök Medrese ("Blue Madrasa"; depicted on the obverse of the Turkish 500 lira banknote of 1927–1939[19]). All three have elaborate entrance portals.[14][24]
The city also contains some fine examples of the Ottoman architectural style. The most prominent example of Ottoman architecture in the city is the Kale Camii ("Citadel Mosque"), built in 1580 by Mehmet Pasha, an Ottoman vizier.[25] Kurşunlu Hamamı ("Leaden Bath") which was completed in 1576, is the largest historic bathhouse in the city and it contains many details from the classical Ottoman bath building. Behrampaşa Hanı (a caravanserai), was completed in 1573 and it is famous for the lion motifs around its windows.
Atatürk Congress and Ethnography Museum (Atatürk Kongre ve Etnografya Müzesi) is a museum with two sections. One is a dedicated to the Ottoman heritage of Sivas. The other is to the Sivas Congress, one of the pivotal moments in the Turkish national movement. Other museums include the Sivas Congress and Ethnography Museum and the Sivas Archaeology Museum. The Madımak Science and Culture Centre is housed in the former Madımak Hotel.[26]
The modern heart of the city is Hükümet Square (Hükümet Meydanı, also called Konak Meydanı) located just next to the Governor's mansion. This area is also home to many of the city's high end hotels and restaurants. The city's shoppers usually head to Atatürk Avenue.
Sivas is also famous for its thermal springs which have a respectable percentage in the city's income. People believe that the water of these thermal springs can cure many illnesses. The most famous thermal areas are, Sıcak Çermik, Soğuk Çermik and Kangal Balıklı Kaplıca.
Sport
[edit]
Football is the most popular sport: in the older districts above the city centre children often kick balls around in the evenings in the smallest streets. The city's football club is Sivasspor, which plays its games at the New Sivas 4 Eylül Stadium. The club currently plays in Süper Lig.
Cuisine
[edit]Specialties of Sivas are tarhana (a soup made using sour yogurt), kelecos (a sour potato soup made with yoghurt) and katmer, a flaky pastry-bread which can be consumed on its own. One distinct feature of Sivas cooking is the use of madimak, which is a local herb used similarly to spinach. Sivas kebabı is a variety of kebab originating from Sivas.
Mayors of Sivas
[edit]- 1984–1989: Bekir Timurboğa (ANAP)
- 1989–1995: Temel Karamollaoğlu (Refah Party)
- 1995–2004: Osman Seçilmiş (Refah Party, Fazilet Party, Saadet Party)
- 2004–2009 and 2014: 2019–Sami Aydın (AK Party)
- 2009–2014: Doğan Ürgüp (BBP)
- 2019–2024: Hilmi Bilgin (AK Party)
- 2024–present: Adem Uzun (BBP)
International relations
[edit]
Notable people
[edit]See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b "Address-based population registration system (ADNKS) results dated 31 December 2022, Favorite Reports" (XLS). TÜİK. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
- ^ İl Belediyesi, Turkey Civil Administration Departments Inventory. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
- ^ a b Julia Cresswell (5 November 2007). Naming Your Baby: The Definitive Dictionary of First Names. A&C Black. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7136-8313-4.
- ^ Davis, J. Madison (1995). The Shakespeare Name and Place Dictionary. Routledge. p. 444. ISBN 978-1-884964-17-6.
- ^ Lindsey, James E.; Mourad, Suleiman A., eds. (2021-10-06). Muslim Sources of the Crusader Period: An Anthology. Hackett Publishing. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-62466-997-2.
- ^ Marsoobian, Armen T. (2015). Fragments of a Lost Homeland: Remembering Armenia. London: I. B. Taurus. p. 56. ISBN 9781784532116.
- ^ Avcıkıran, Dr. Adem (ed.). "Kürtçe Anamnez, Anamneza bi Kurmancî" (PDF). Tirsik. p. 57. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
- ^ A.H.M. Jones, The Cities of the Eastern Roman Provinces, 2nd ed. (Oxford University Press, 1971), 159.
- ^ a b Cooper, Eric; Decker, Michael J. (24 July 2012). Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia. Springer. pp. 17, 25–28, 43. ISBN 978-1-137-02964-5. Retrieved 12 November 2024.
- ^ a b Krikorian, Mesrob K. (1977-01-01). Armenians in the Service of the Ottoman Empire, 1860-1908. Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 53. ISBN 9781138492073.
- ^ Rosser, John H. (2012). Historical dictionary of Byzantium (2nd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 425. ISBN 9780810875678.
- ^ Speros Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century (University of California Press, 1971), p. 155
- ^ Budge, Wallis (London, 1932). Bar Hebraeus' Chronography. p. 206
- ^ a b c d M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Sivas". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195309911.
- ^ Henry Hoyle Howorth: History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century, 2008, p. 166
- ^ Pars Tuğlacı: Tarih boyunca Batı Ermenileri tarihi. Cilt 3. (1891 – 1922), Pars Yayın ve Tic., Istanbul und Ankara 2004 ISBN 975-7423-06-8, p. 43
- ^ Raymond Kévorkian: Le Génocide des Arméniens; Odile Jacob, Paris 2006, p. 542
- ^ Halil Gülbeyaz: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Vom Staatsgründer zum Mythos, Parthas, Berlin 2003, p. 87
- ^ a b Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Archived 2009-06-15 at the Wayback Machine. Banknote Museum: 1. Emission Group - Five Hundred Turkish Lira - I. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Kaza Sivas / Σεβάστεια – Sebastaia / Սեբաստիա – Sebastia / Սվաս – Svas / Սրվազ - Srvaz". Virtual Genocide Memorial. Retrieved 2023-09-20.
- ^ "Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Mevism Normalleri (1991–2020)" (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
- ^ "World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 — Sivas". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
- ^ "Sivas-Weather data by months". Meteomanz. Retrieved 4 February 2025.
- ^ Blessing, Patricia (2014). "A capital of learning: Three madrasas in Sivas (1271–1272)". Rebuilding Anatolia after the Mongol Conquest: Islamic Architecture in the Lands of Rūm, 1240–1330. Routledge. pp. 69–122. ISBN 978-1-4724-2406-8.
- ^ Sinclair, T. A. (1989). Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey, Volume II. Pindar Press. p. 306. ISBN 978-0-907132-33-2.
- ^ sitesi, milliyet.com.tr Türkiye'nin lider haber. "Madımak oteli Bilim ve Kültür Merkezi oldu". MİLLİYET HABER - TÜRKİYE'NİN HABER SİTESİ. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
- ^ a b c d e f g Uzaklar Yakinlaşti - Sivas Twin Towns Archived 2013-12-27 at the Wayback Machine(in Turkish)
- ^ "National Commission for Decentralised cooperation". Délégation pour l'Action Extérieure des Collectivités Territoriales (Ministère des Affaires étrangères) (in French). Archived from the original on 2013-10-04. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
External links
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sivas.
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Sivas
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Sivas is a city in central Turkey and the capital of Sivas Province, located in the eastern part of the Central Anatolia Region at an elevation of 1,278 meters.[1] The province spans approximately 28,000 square kilometers, ranking as the second-largest in Turkey by area, with a population of around 650,000 as of 2023, while the city itself has about 389,000 residents.[2][3][4] Known for its strategic position on ancient trade routes, Sivas features prominent Seljuk-era monuments such as the Gök Medrese and Şifaiye Medrese, exemplifying Anatolian architectural advancements in stone carving and turquoise tilework from the 13th century.[5] In 1919, the city hosted the Sivas Congress, convened by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk from September 4 to 11, where representatives unified efforts for national resistance against post-World War I occupation, marking a foundational step toward the Republic of Turkey's establishment.[6][7] The local economy centers on manufacturing sectors like cement, textiles, and rail maintenance, supported by its continental climate and proximity to major transport corridors.[8]
AKP consolidated dominance from 2004 onward, aligning with national electoral gains (e.g., 46% in 2011 generals influencing locals), driven by Sivas' 70%+ conservative turnout patterns, though 2009 saw a temporary BBP upset reflecting intra-right competition.[75] This continuity underscores local aversion to CHP's secular platform, which garnered under 20% in recent municipals, prioritizing instead policies on heritage preservation and economic conservatism over progressive shifts. The 2024 election disrupted AKP hold, with BBP's Adem Uzun winning 78,154 votes (43.3%) to AKP's 52,669 (29.2%), yet preserving right-wing governance amid economic pressures.[83]
These partnerships have supported targeted outcomes, such as business coordination meetings between Sivas and Gradačac officials to enhance local trade links.[175] No evidence indicates predominantly symbolic engagements without verifiable reciprocal benefits.
Etymology
Name origins and historical usage
The name Sivas derives from the ancient Greek Sebasteia (Σεβάστεια), which was applied to the settlement during the late Hellenistic and Roman periods to honor the emperor Augustus, as sebastos (σεβαστός) translates to "venerable" or "august" in Greek, equivalent to the Latin augustus.[9] This renaming occurred under Pompey or shortly thereafter, building on earlier foundations possibly dating to Hittite settlements in the region, though no direct Hittite toponym for the specific site has been conclusively linked through philological evidence.[10] Strabo records that Queen Pythodoris of Pontus further developed the city and formalized its name as Sebaste, using it as a royal residence, indicating its strategic importance in northern Cappadocia.[9] By the Byzantine era, the name persisted as Sebasteia, appearing in historical texts as a metropolitan see and administrative center in the theme of the same name, reflecting continuity amid shifting empires despite phonetic adaptations in local usage.[11] Following the Danishmendid conquest around 1071–1085 CE, Turkic rulers adapted the toponym to Sivas, a simplified Turkish form that retained the core phonetic structure of Sebasteia while aligning with Oghuz Turkish phonology, as evidenced in early Seljuk chronicles and inscriptions.[8] This evolution underscores the name's resilience across linguistic shifts, from Indo-European Greek to Turkic, without interruption from folk derivations such as unsubstantiated links to Turkish siya ("dark"), which lack support in primary historical linguistics.[12] Ottoman records from the 15th century onward consistently employed Sivas in administrative defters and travelogues, such as those by Evliya Çelebi, treating it as the established vernacular equivalent of the classical name, with no significant variant forms beyond minor Armenian renderings like Sevastia in medieval colophons.[13] The continuity in usage highlights causal persistence in toponymy driven by geographic fixity rather than conquest-induced reinvention, as the site's role as a regional hub predated and outlasted imperial nomenclature changes.Geography
Location and topography
Sivas is located in the Central Anatolia Region of central Turkey, at geographic coordinates 39°45′N 37°02′E.[14] The city center sits at an elevation of 1,278 meters (4,193 ft) above sea level within the broad valley formed by the Kızılırmak River, the longest river in Anatolia.[15] This valley positioning facilitates its role as a historical trade and settlement hub, with the river's meandering path influencing the linear development of urban areas along its banks.[15] The topography surrounding Sivas features a transition from the flat to undulating valley floor to elevated plateaus and mountain ranges, including the Köse Mountains to the north and extensions of ranges like the Kösedağ.[16] These elevations, reaching over 2,400 meters in peaks such as Mount Asmalı, encircle the basin and contribute to a rugged perimeter that has constrained expansion and directed transportation routes through passes.[16] The Central Anatolian Plateau's highland character, marked by steppe-like expanses, further defines the regional terrain, promoting dispersed settlement patterns adapted to the intermontane depressions.[17] Geologically, Sivas lies within the Central Sivas Basin, a tectonically formed depression with Miocene gypsum karst formations up to 750 meters thick, leading to features like sinkholes and relict valleys perched above the modern river course.[18] The area's position along active fault lines results in high seismic activity, with historical records indicating multiple earthquakes exceeding magnitude 6 since 1900 and ongoing hazard from ground amplification in basin sediments.[19][20] The Kızılırmak River system, originating in the nearby Kızıl Mountains, has sculpted the valley through erosion, exposing underlying sedimentary layers and shaping the basin's geomorphology over Pliocene epochs.[18]Climate and environmental features
Sivas exhibits a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dsb), marked by pronounced seasonal temperature variations and relatively low annual precipitation. Winters are cold and snowy, with January recording an average low of -7°C and frequent frost occurrences due to the city's elevation of approximately 1,285 meters above sea level, which amplifies diurnal and seasonal temperature extremes.[21][22] Summers are warm and dry, peaking in July with average highs of 28.4°C and minimal rainfall, contributing to an overall annual mean temperature of about 8.9°C.[21] Precipitation totals around 427 mm yearly, concentrated in spring and winter months, supporting steppe-like vegetation but limiting lush growth.[22] The high elevation exacerbates frost-prone conditions, with the cold season extending from late November to early April, during which average daily highs remain below 8°C and snowfall accumulates significantly.[23] This climatic regime influences local ecology, fostering resilient herbaceous plants and coniferous elements adapted to aridity and temperature swings, while constraining agricultural yields to hardy crops like grains and legumes. Empirical records from the Turkish State Meteorological Service highlight these patterns, underscoring the role of continental air masses in driving aridity and thermal contrasts.[24] Environmental pressures in Sivas include episodic water scarcity, as evidenced by fluctuations in regional dam levels; for instance, the İmranlı Dam Lake in Sivas Province reached a low occupancy of 29.2% in 2021, reflecting drought impacts and variable inflows amid broader Turkish water stress projections.[25] Air quality concerns persist, particularly during winter when residential coal heating elevates particulate matter (PM10) concentrations, with statistical analyses of 2016–2020 data showing significant temporal variability and exceedances of health thresholds in urban monitoring stations.[26] Industrial activities, including mining and manufacturing expansion, have compounded localized pollution, though mitigation efforts focus on emission controls to address gypsum formation on heritage structures from sulfur dioxide exposure.[27][28] These issues, grounded in monitoring data, highlight the interplay between climatic dryness and anthropogenic factors in straining environmental resilience.History
Ancient and classical periods
The region encompassing modern Sivas exhibits evidence of prehistoric settlement dating back to the Chalcolithic period, with significant Hittite occupation from approximately 2000 BCE. Excavations at Kayalıpınar, identified as the ancient Hittite city of Samuha, have uncovered cultic structures, including a temple complex, cuneiform tablets, and over 50 seal impressions, some bearing the name of King Hattusili III (reigned c. 1267–1237 BCE), indicating its role as an administrative and religious center in the Hittite empire.[29][30] Additional Hittite artifacts, such as seals and pottery, have emerged from sites like Sarissa in Altınyayla district, underscoring the area's integration into the Hittite network before the empire's collapse around 1200 BCE.[31] Following the Hittite decline, the Sivas region fell under Achaemenid Persian control as part of the satrapy of Cappadocia by the 6th century BCE, with limited archaeological traces of Persian influence amid subsequent Hellenistic transitions. In 65 BCE, Roman general Pompey the Great reorganized the former Kingdom of Pontus and established or refounded the settlement as Sebasteia, named after the Greek title Sebastos (venerable, honoring Augustus).[11] Under Roman administration, Sebasteia grew as a strategic hub in Armenia Minor, featuring fortifications and infrastructure documented in imperial records; it achieved metropolitan status by the 2nd century CE under Emperor Verus.[32] Early Christianity took root in Sebasteia during the Roman era, exemplified by the martyrdom of forty soldiers of the Twelfth Legion in 320 CE under Licinius, who refused to renounce their faith and were exposed to freezing conditions on a lake near the city.[33][34] Byzantine sources and hagiographic texts preserve accounts of this event, corroborated by local commemorative sites. In the Byzantine period, Sebasteia served as the capital of the Theme of Sebasteia from the 8th century, bolstering defenses against Arab incursions through fortified walls and military outposts. Archaeological layers at Kayalıpınar reveal an early Byzantine cemetery overlying Roman and Hittite strata, including graves and artifacts from the 4th–7th centuries CE, while excavations at Sivas Castle have yielded Byzantine-period tombstones and structural remains dating to around 2000 years ago, attesting to continuous occupation and strategic fortification.[35][36]Medieval Seljuk and post-Seljuk era
![Gök Medrese in Sivas][float-right] Sivas emerged as a significant center within the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum during the 12th and 13th centuries, serving as a key administrative and cultural hub in central Anatolia. The city benefited from the Seljuks' expansion following their victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which facilitated Turkic settlement and control over the region. By the reign of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I (1220–1237), Sivas had developed into a prosperous trade and educational locale, evidenced by the construction of infrastructure supporting Seljuk governance.[37] The architectural patronage under Seljuk viziers marked a peak in Sivas's medieval development, with multiple madrasas erected in the late 13th century reflecting Persian-influenced designs adapted to local stonework. Notably, the Gök Medrese, completed in 1271 CE by Grand Vizier Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali during the tenure of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III, exemplifies this era's monumental stone facades featuring turquoise tiles and intricate portals symbolizing celestial motifs. Similarly, the Buruciye Medrese and Çifte Minareli Medrese, also built around 1271, underscore Sivas's role in disseminating Islamic jurisprudence and sciences amid the sultanate's fragmented authority. These structures, surviving as ruins, indicate sustained investment despite political instability.[38][39] The Battle of Köse Dağ, fought on June 26, 1243, approximately 80 kilometers northeast of Sivas, decisively altered the region's trajectory when Seljuk forces under Kaykhusraw II suffered a crushing defeat against Mongol commander Baiju Noyan. This Mongol incursion imposed Ilkhanid overlordship on the Sultanate of Rum, transforming Sivas into a vassal administrative center subject to tribute and military levies, which facilitated a synthesis of Persian, Turkic, and Mongol administrative practices. Chronicles document the battle's immediate aftermath as triggering internal revolts and economic strain, yet Sivas's strategic location preserved its viability through accommodation with Mongol governors.[40][41] In the post-Seljuk era, following the Ilkhanate's decline after 1335, Sivas became the capital of the Eretnid beylik under Eretna, a former Ilkhanid governor of Armenian origin who asserted independence and ruled until his death in 1352. The Eretnids maintained control over Sivas, Kayseri, and surrounding territories, fostering recovery through trade routes evidenced by preserved caravanserais like those along Anatolian highways, which supported commerce despite rival pressures from the Karamanids to the south. Eretnid rule ended in 1381 amid fragmentation, with Sivas transitioning to Ottoman influence later, but its medieval monuments attest to resilient local patronage amid shifting overlords.[42]Ottoman period
Sivas was conquered by Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I in 1398, annexing it from the Eretnaid beylik and integrating the region into expanding Ottoman domains in Anatolia.[43] The city fell to Timur's forces in 1400, who subjected it to severe destruction amid his broader campaign against Ottoman holdings, reducing its fortifications and population.[44] Following Timur's death in 1405 and the Ottoman recovery from civil strife under Mehmed I, Sivas was resecured by approximately 1410, thereafter serving as the administrative seat of the Eyalet of Rum, with the city itself organized as a sanjak governed by a appointed beylerbeyi overseeing subordinate timars and zeamets.[13] As a key provincial hub, Sivas derived economic vitality from its position astride major east-west caravan routes, including paths linking Bursa through Sivas to Erzincan and Tabriz, which channeled silk, spices, and eastern goods westward while exporting Anatolian grain and textiles eastward.[45] Ottoman tahrir defters compiled in the 16th century reveal a predominantly agrarian economy, with taxes levied on grain yields from fertile plains, sheep and goat herds numbering in the tens of thousands, and village households totaling around 10,000-15,000 across the sanjak, indicating a resilient rural base supporting both local sustenance and surplus for trade.[46] These records underscore steady revenue from agricultural tithes (öşür) and animal taxes (resm-i ağnam), though nomadic tribes posed intermittent challenges to settled cultivation. The Tanzimat era, launched by the 1839 Gülhane Edict, eroded the autonomy of Sivas's local ayan elites through enforced direct taxation, land surveys, and military conscription, redirecting fiscal authority to Istanbul-appointed officials and fostering administrative uniformity.[47] Reforms spurred infrastructure enhancements, such as graded roads linking Sivas to adjacent provinces for troop movements and commerce, alongside telegraph lines installed in the 1850s to expedite governance and intelligence flows.[48] Culminating in the 1864 Vilayet Law, these changes elevated Sivas to the head of a newly delineated vilayet, streamlining judicial and municipal structures while integrating the province more tightly into imperial networks, albeit with persistent tensions over resource extraction and ethnic compositions.[49]Late Ottoman and early Republican transitions
During World War I, Sivas province functioned as a rear base for the Ottoman Third Army engaged on the Caucasus front, supporting logistics and mobilization efforts amid the empire's alliance with the Central Powers from October 1914. The region, encompassing diverse ethnic groups including Turks, Armenians, Kurds, and Circassians, faced economic disruptions and influxes of refugees from eastern battlefields, straining local resources as documented in provincial administrative reports.[50] In May 1915, as Russian advances and reported Armenian uprisings threatened Ottoman supply lines— with Sivas governor noting armed Armenian bands in mountainous areas— the central government ordered the relocation of Armenians from eastern provinces, including Sivas, to southern desert regions for security reasons. Ottoman military assessments, such as those analyzed by historian Edward J. Erickson, framed these measures as wartime necessities to neutralize fifth-column risks, rather than extermination policies. Pre-war Ottoman censuses recorded approximately 171,000 Armenians in Sivas vilayet out of a total population exceeding 700,000, forming a significant minority; by war's end, relocations and attendant hardships, including disease and banditry, reduced the Armenian presence to negligible levels, shifting demographics toward an overwhelming Muslim majority and altering the multi-ethnic fabric of the province.[51][50][52] Following the Ottoman armistice in October 1918 and Allied occupation threats under the Mudros terms, Sivas became a focal point for resistance. Mustafa Kemal Pasha arrived on July 1, 1919, and convened the Sivas Congress from September 4 to 11, assembling delegates from across Anatolia despite British attempts to prevent it. The congress ratified the Erzurum resolutions, rejected partition schemes like those in the Treaty of Sèvres, and formed the Executive Committee of Representatives to coordinate the national struggle, effectively unifying disparate societies under centralized leadership.[7][6] In the ensuing War of Independence, Sivas contributed through rail junctions vital for troop transport, local defense associations inspired by congress decisions, and recruitment into regular forces, including elements of the 12th Division that fought in eastern theaters. These efforts supported logistics and manpower until the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne secured Turkish sovereignty, integrating Sivas as a province in the new republic while honoring its role via commemorative sites like the Congress Building.[53][54]Republican era events and developments
In the decades following the Republic's founding in 1923, Sivas participated in Turkey's state-directed modernization, with emphasis on transportation infrastructure to integrate central Anatolia into national economic circuits. The city's longstanding role as a rail hub saw expansions under Republican five-year plans, though growth decelerated after the 1950s shift toward road investments, limiting further railway development until recent revivals.[55] Industrial initiatives post-1950 incorporated Sivas into broader public sector efforts in mining and manufacturing, leveraging regional resources like coal deposits near Kangal, though output remained secondary to western provinces due to logistical challenges and uneven state prioritization. Urban expansion accelerated from the mid-20th century, with GIS analyses revealing a century-long transformation from historic cores to sprawling peripheries, driven by rural-to-urban migration amid national population pressures.[56][57] Recent decades marked accelerated connectivity, exemplified by the 2024 inauguration of the high-speed rail extension linking Istanbul to Sivas over 700 km in under 8 hours, enhancing passenger throughput to 483 per train and supporting regional economic ties. Ongoing projects, including the 247 km Sivas-Erzincan line designed for 250 km/h speeds with 35 tunnels, underscore commitments to northern Anatolian integration.[58][59] Underlying Republican secular frameworks clashed with resurgent Islamist currents by the early 1990s, evident in Sivas's prelude to the Madımak events during the annual Pir Sultan Abdal festival on July 2, 1993—a commemoration of the 16th-century Alevi poet in a Sunni-majority setting that drew Alevi intellectuals amid post-1980 coup liberalization of religious expression.[60]Demographics
Population trends and statistics
As of 2022, the population of Sivas Province totaled 634,924, reflecting slow growth from 623,116 in 2014, with an average annual increase of approximately 0.3%.[61][62] The central district, encompassing the urban core, reached 390,318 residents, up from 382,520 in 2020, driven by limited natural increase offset by net internal out-migration to larger metropolitan areas like Istanbul and Ankara.[63] This pattern aligns with broader post-1980s trends of rural-to-urban shifts within Turkey, where internal migration across provinces exceeded 2.7 million annually in recent years, contributing to Sivas's subdued expansion.[63] Urbanization in Sivas Province has progressed steadily, with about 72% of residents living in provincial and district centers by 2014, indicative of concentrated migration from rural districts to the city since the 1980s economic liberalization.[62] The province's urbanization rate, estimated around 60-70% in recent assessments, underscores this internal redistribution, though overall provincial growth remains constrained by higher emigration rates among working-age cohorts.[64] Vital statistics reveal a declining fertility profile, with 6,697 live births recorded in 2022—a 30% drop from 8,285 in 2018—yielding a crude birth rate of approximately 10.5 per 1,000, below the national figure of 12.2.[65] Natural population increase persists but at low levels, supported by death rates comparable to national averages around 5-6 per 1,000, while age distribution features a youth bulge with over 25% under age 15 and a median age aligning with Turkey's 33.5 years, though selective out-migration of youth tempers this demographic structure.[66][65]Ethnic, linguistic, and religious composition
The population of Sivas province is predominantly ethnic Turkish, comprising the overwhelming majority following the demographic consolidations after the 1923 population exchange with Greece and the earlier Armenian deportations during World War I, which reduced non-Turkish Christian communities to negligible levels. Kurdish communities, speaking dialects such as Zazaki or Kurmanji, exist in select rural districts like Zara and Hafik but represent a small fraction, estimated at under 5% based on regional migration patterns and ethnographic observations.[67] [2] Turkish serves as the primary language, with near-universal proficiency among residents as the official and everyday medium of communication, reflecting the province's integration into the national linguistic framework. Minority languages like Kurdish are confined to specific familial or village settings, often alongside Turkish bilingualism, and show no evidence of widespread use in urban centers or public life.[50] Religiously, Sunni Islam dominates, adhered to by approximately 80-85% of the population, aligned with the Hanafi school prevalent in central Anatolia. Alevism, a heterodox tradition blending Shia elements, Sufism, and local folk practices, forms a significant minority estimated at 15-20%, exceeding national averages and concentrated in villages and certain neighborhoods; most local Alevis are ethnic Turks descended from medieval Turkic tribes that adopted the faith. This composition stems from historical divergences under Ottoman rule, where Alevis—lacking formal recognition akin to non-Muslim millets—faced systemic marginalization, fostering enduring sectarian frictions evident in events like the 1993 hotel arson targeting Alevi intellectuals.[68] [69]Government and administration
Local governance structure
Sivas Province functions as the key administrative unit in its local governance framework, subdivided into 17 districts that facilitate decentralized service delivery and oversight. The central Sivas District serves as the seat of provincial authority and encompasses the urban core of the city.[70][2] At the provincial level, administration is led by the vali (governor), appointed by the central government to represent national interests, enforce laws, and manage inter-agency coordination, including public security and development projects. This appointed role ensures alignment with national priorities while district-level kaymakams (sub-governors), also centrally appointed, handle local enforcement within each of the 17 districts.[71] The Sivas Municipality governs the municipal affairs of the central district, operating as a non-metropolitan entity under Turkey's municipal framework due to not meeting the population thresholds outlined in Law No. 5216 for metropolitan status. The mayor is directly elected by voters in quinquennial local elections, presiding over a municipal council composed of elected representatives who deliberate on budgets, zoning, and services such as sanitation and transportation. This structure, rooted in updates to the 1984 Municipal Law and subsequent reforms like Law No. 5393, balances elected local decision-making with provincial oversight from the vali to prevent fragmentation in service provision.[2][72]Historical mayors and political shifts
Following the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, Sivas' municipal leadership during the single-party era (1923–1950) was dominated by appointees and early elected officials affiliated with the Republican People's Party (CHP), including Ali Rıza Yurdakul (1920–1925), Hayri Lütfullah Sığırci (1926–1930), Hamdi Bacanak (1930–1934), and İrfan Ünsal (1934–1938).[73][74] With the transition to multi-party democracy after 1950, Sivas' mayoral elections began reflecting the city's entrenched conservative preferences, initially through center-right parties like the Democrat Party (DP) and later the Justice Party (AP), though specific pre-1980s vote data remains sparse in municipal records. The 1980 military coup temporarily centralized control, but local elections resumed in 1984 under the Motherland Party (ANAP), which secured the mayoralty with Bekir Timurboğa (1984–1989).[75] A pivotal shift occurred in the late 1980s toward Islamist-leaning parties, mirroring national trends but amplified by Sivas' rural-conservative demographics, where Refah Party (RP) captured 28% of the national vote in 1989 yet achieved local dominance. Temel Karamollaoğlu (RP, 1989–1995) won with substantial margins, emphasizing infrastructure like road expansions amid post-coup economic recovery. This era marked resistance to the secular policies enforced after the 1980 coup, as voters favored parties prioritizing traditional values over Kemalist reforms, with RP successors maintaining control.[76][77]| Mayor | Party | Term | Notable Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Temel Karamollaoğlu | Refah Party | 1989–1995 | Elected in 1989 and 1994 local polls; focused on urban services amid national Islamist rise.[76][78] |
| Osman Seçilmiş | Fazilet Party / Saadet Party | 1995–2004 | Retained seat through 1999 elections despite party closures; advanced municipal projects like industrial zoning.[79][75] |
| Sami Aydın | Justice and Development Party (AKP) | 2004–2009; 2014–2019 | Won 2004 with AKP's national 34% share translating to local majority; oversaw urban renewal including housing and transport upgrades per municipal logs.[75][80] |
| Doğan Ürgüp | Great Unity Party (BBP) | 2009–2014 | Brief interruption of AKP streak in 2009 polls, securing ~40% votes amid economic discontent.[75] |
| Hilmi Bilgin | AKP | 2019–2024 | Elected in 2019 with 84,246 votes (51% share) against BBP's 61,771; prioritized sustainability initiatives like greenhouses.[81][82] |
Economy
Agricultural and traditional sectors
Agriculture in Sivas centers on cereal production, with wheat and barley as primary crops, earning the province the designation of Turkey's "grain granary." Harvesting typically commences in late July, supported by the region's vast arable lands comprising 41% of its total area. In 2025, farmers anticipated record yields amid favorable conditions, deploying combine harvesters across fields to capitalize on the province's suitable climate and soil for rain-fed cultivation.[84][85] Livestock farming supplements crop output, with Sivas hosting 414,361 head of cattle as of recent surveys, representing 2.43% of Turkey's national herd. The Central Anatolia region, including Sivas, accounts for a significant portion of the country's sheep and goat populations, leveraging 27% of provincial lands as pastures for extensive grazing systems.[86][87] Advancements in crop breeding have bolstered yields, as Sivas-based researchers at local institutions developed three new bread wheat varieties in 2024 following 14 years of trials, with seed production slated for the 2024-25 season to enhance disease resistance and output in the local climate. Additionally, four hybrid-derived wheat types adapted for high yields and resilience were registered, targeting Sivas conditions.[88][89][90] Mining forms a traditional pillar, particularly iron ore extraction in districts like those supplying raw materials to national steel facilities. While precise provincial GDP shares vary, these extractive activities alongside agriculture underpin the foundational economy, with iron ore output feeding downstream industries.[91] Traditional crafts persist culturally, notably kilim and carpet weaving by local artisans, often using flat-weave techniques or the Turkish Gordes knot with wool yarns. Sivas rugs, produced by tribal groups such as those in Sarkisla, feature durable designs but face decline amid modernization, retaining value as handcrafted heritage items.[92][93]Industrial, energy, and recent developments
Sivas has seen targeted industrial growth since the early 2000s, particularly in manufacturing sectors such as cement production. In 2022, Votorantim Cimentos invested €140 million to expand its Sivas plant, tripling its production capacity to support domestic and export demands.[94] More recently, a $400 million semiconductor and solar cell manufacturing facility broke ground in 2025, with operations slated to commence in July, aiming to bolster high-tech output and target markets including the United States.[95] [96] Additionally, Tezmaksan Robotics announced a €15 million factory investment in Sivas to expand production capacity tenfold, focusing on automation equipment.[97] In energy, Sivas has pursued renewable installations amid Turkey's broader shift toward intermittent sources. The 128.4 MWp solar farm developed by Turk Telecom and ZTE, operational by 2024, contributes to grid strengthening but relies on variable sunlight, necessitating backup systems for reliability.[98] A smaller Sivas Solar PV Park generates approximately 15,950 MWh annually from ground-mounted panels.[99] Wind development includes the YEKA Sivas-1-2 project, completed and commissioned in March 2025, though subject to weather-dependent output fluctuations.[100] Larger wind tenders, including a potential 500 MW site in Sivas, were announced in 2025 under national YEKA auctions, signaling planned capacity additions.[101] [102] Recent developments extend to aquaculture, leveraging dam infrastructure for rainbow trout farming via floating net cages, which has positioned Sivas as a regional producer. By 2013, 47 farms in the province achieved a capacity of 5,544 tons annually, accounting for about 5% of Turkey's total trout output, with ongoing expansions in lakes like İmranlı and Çamlıgöze despite environmental monitoring needs to prevent water quality degradation.[103] [104] [105] These initiatives reflect incremental economic diversification, though province-level GDP per capita and unemployment data remain below national averages, with Turkey's overall rate at 8.45% in 2024.[106]Education and science
Key institutions and universities
Sivas Cumhuriyet University, a public institution established in 1973 to mark the 50th anniversary of the Republic of Turkey, serves as the region's leading higher education center, enrolling over 50,000 students across 18 faculties, 4 graduate institutes, and specialized programs in fields such as medicine—its inaugural faculty opened in 1974—and engineering.[107][108] The university operates 18 vocational schools, including the Divriği Nuri Demirağ Vocational School focused on technical training, and maintains 35 research and application centers that support applied studies in areas like health sciences and materials engineering.[107][109] Complementing this, Sivas University of Science and Technology, founded in 2018, emphasizes technical and scientific disciplines through three faculties—Engineering and Natural Sciences, Aeronautics and Astronautics, and one additional engineering-focused unit—alongside two vocational schools and a graduate institute, with an initial staff of around 300 academics training students in optics, advanced manufacturing, and related innovations.[110][111] These institutions collectively bolster local human capital development, though regional educational outcomes reflect national patterns where adult literacy exceeds 97% but reveal disparities in standardized assessments like PISA, with rural areas in inland provinces such as Sivas scoring below urban benchmarks in reading and science proficiency.[112]Scientific research and innovations
In agricultural research, the Sivas Directorate of Provincial Agriculture and Forestry developed three new bread wheat varieties—Sivas-2024, Sivas-2025, and Sivas-2026—following a 14-year breeding program completed in September 2024, marking the first such regional innovation in Central Anatolia's history.[88][89] These varieties demonstrate enhanced yield stability and disease resistance suited to Sivas's high-altitude, semi-arid conditions, with field trials showing up to 15% higher productivity than prior standards under local stressors like drought.[113] The Sivas Agricultural Research Institute has historically contributed to hybrid wheat commercialization, supporting practical adoption by local farmers through seed distribution programs.[114] In renewable energy, Sivas hosts the 11 MW Sivas Solar PV Park, operational since 2021, which adapts photovoltaic systems to the province's cold winters and variable irradiance via elevated panel mounting and bifacial modules for snow reflection efficiency.[99] Türk Telekom's planned 128.4 MWp solar farm in Zara district, announced in December 2024, incorporates advanced tracking systems and eco-friendly designs to supply a quarter of the company's energy needs, emphasizing grid integration for remote Anatolian terrains.[115] These projects reflect localized engineering adaptations, with output metrics indicating a capacity factor exceeding 18% annually despite climatic challenges.[98] Sivas facilitates innovation through recurring international congresses, such as the 4th Sivas International Congress on Scientific Research and Innovation held May 30–31, 2025, which featured proceedings from over 200 papers across multidisciplinary fields, prioritizing applied outcomes like agricultural tech transfer.[116] Similarly, the International Multidisciplinary Scientific Research Congress in July 2025 at Sivas Cumhuriyet University disseminated findings on sustainable innovations, fostering collaborations that have led to practical prototypes in energy and agrotech.[117] Patent data remains modest, with Sivas recording 15 applications in 2012, underscoring a focus on implementation over filings.[118]Transportation and infrastructure
Road, rail, and air connectivity
Sivas is connected to the national rail network primarily through the Ankara–Sivas high-speed railway line, which spans 406 km and was completed and opened for service on April 26, 2023, reducing travel time from the previous 12 hours to approximately 2 hours and 50 minutes.[119][120] This line operates at speeds up to 250 km/h on most sections, facilitating integration with the Ankara–Istanbul high-speed network and supporting freight and passenger mobility along the Middle Corridor, a modern revival of historic Silk Road trade routes.[121][122] In December 2024, the World Bank approved $660 million in financing for the Eastern Türkiye Middle Corridor Railway Development Project, which includes electrifying and modernizing the 660 km rail corridor from Divriği (near Sivas) to Kars, replacing diesel operations with electric systems to enhance capacity for both passengers and freight.[123][124] Road connectivity centers on the European route E88, a major east-west highway originating in Ankara, passing through Yozgat, and extending 234 km to Sivas before continuing eastward to Refahiye, serving as the primary arterial for vehicular traffic and goods transport in the region. Intercity bus services from Sivas Intercity Bus Terminal provide frequent connections to major Turkish cities such as Ankara, Istanbul, and Erzurum, operated by companies including Metro Turizm and Öz Sivas, with departures available hourly to key destinations.[125] Air access is provided by Sivas Nuri Demirağ Airport (VAS/LTAR), which handles primarily domestic flights to hubs like Istanbul (via Turkish Airlines and Pegasus), Izmir, Antalya, and Bodrum, with services focused on low-cost and scheduled carriers rather than extensive international routes.[126][127] The airport supports regional mobility but relies on ground transport for broader connectivity.[128]Urban development projects
Following national urban transformation policies enacted in 2012, Sivas has implemented projects to identify and retrofit risky buildings, prioritizing compliance with AFAD seismic standards to mitigate earthquake vulnerability in this tectonically active region.[129] [130] These efforts, integrated with TOKİ's nationwide housing initiatives that delivered over 1.3 million units since 2003, have facilitated peripheral residential expansions in Sivas, reducing density in older districts while enhancing structural resilience.[131] The Sivas Organized Industrial Zone (OSB) exemplifies infrastructure-driven growth, achieving 99% occupancy by 2025 and employing nearly 10,600 workers, supported by a 300-acre expansion that has attracted manufacturing investments and bolstered local economic output without encroaching on the historic core.[132] This zonal development has causally linked to increased urban employment and reduced rural-urban migration pressures, though it demands coordinated infrastructure to manage resulting population influxes. Water management infrastructure has advanced through the 2002 Municipal Water Infrastructure Turkey (MUWIT) project, which allocated up to €30 million for Sivas's water supply and sewerage systems, targeting a population of 75,000–400,000 to address health risks from inadequate sanitation amid climate-induced variability in precipitation.[133] These upgrades have improved wastewater collection efficiency and potable water access, mitigating flood and drought impacts in expanding peri-urban areas. GIS-based analyses reveal Sivas's built-up area has grown outward, primarily northeast and south, over the past century, with post-2000 accelerations in peripheral land conversion contrasting relative stability in the central historic fabric, where planning incorporates heritage sites to curb uncontrolled sprawl.[134] [57] Such patterns preserve core density below sprawl thresholds observed elsewhere in Turkey, fostering sustainable density gradients that support economic vitality without overwhelming central utilities.Cultural heritage
Historical monuments and sights
Sivas preserves a cluster of Seljuk-era medreses and mosques exemplifying Anatolian stone architecture from the 12th and 13th centuries, characterized by ornate portals, muqarnas vaults, and geometric tilework. These structures, built under the patronage of Seljuk viziers and sultans, served as centers for education and worship, reflecting the region's role as a cultural hub during the Rum Seljuk Sultanate. Preservation initiatives by Turkish authorities address weathering from exposure and seismic activity, with ongoing restorations to maintain structural integrity against erosion from wind and precipitation.[38] The Gök Medrese, also known as Sahibiye Medresesi, was commissioned in 1271 by Seljuk vizier Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali during the reign of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III and constructed by architect Kaluyan al-Qunawi using cut stone. Its turquoise-tiled dome and facade carvings of mythical creatures and floral motifs highlight Seljuk mastery in polychrome stonework, though interior spaces now house a museum after conversion from a theological school.[38][135] Adjacent, the Çifte Minare Medresesi, erected in 1271-1272 by Ilkhanid vizier Shams al-Din Juvayni, features twin fluted minarets flanking a grand iwan portal adorned with muqarnas and reliefs; the main body was largely demolished around 1880, leaving the entrance as a freestanding ruin. Archaeological excavations in the 1960s uncovered foundations, informing targeted restorations to stabilize the remaining masonry against further decay.[136] The Buruciye Medresesi, or Şifaiye Medresesi, dates to 1218 under Sultan Izzeddin Keykavus I and represents an early example of the külliye complex with attached hospital functions, its portal emphasizing stalactite hoods and lion motifs symbolizing power. Restored in phases, it now functions as an archaeological museum displaying Seljuk artifacts.[137] The Ulu Cami, Sivas's oldest surviving congregational mosque, was founded in 1197 by Danishmend ruler Kizil Arslan under Seljuk oversight of Qutb al-Din Malikshah, featuring a hypostyle hall with 50 wooden columns supporting a flat roof and an inclined minaret from later additions. Its simple yet robust design underscores early Turkmen influences, with modern reinforcements addressing foundation shifts from soil erosion.[138] The Sivas Congress and Ethnography Museum occupies the former American High School building, site of the pivotal 1919 Sivas Congress convened by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk from September 4 to 11, where delegates unified resistance efforts against Allied occupation, shaping the Turkish National Movement. Acquired by the Ministry of Culture in 1984, it preserves original furnishings like Atatürk's desk and hosts exhibits on the independence struggle, drawing visitors for its role in early republican history.[6]Cuisine and local traditions
Sivas cuisine emphasizes hearty, preservation-oriented dishes derived from the region's wheat cultivation, livestock rearing, and continental climate, which supports air-drying meats and fermenting dairy. Central to this is keşkek, a slow-cooked porridge of pounded wheat berries and lamb or beef, pounded to a creamy consistency, historically prepared in large cauldrons for communal events and preserved through Ottoman-era techniques documented in estate records listing similar grain-meat preparations for feasts.[139] This dish ties to the pastoral economy, where sheep and cattle provide the meat, and its labor-intensive method reflects pre-industrial food security practices in inland Anatolia.[140] Pastırma, a spice-rubbed, air-dried beef product coated in fenugreek paste, originates from Central Anatolian curing traditions adapted for long winters, with Sivas producers leveraging local salt deposits and herding for its manufacture since at least the Seljuk period, as inferred from regional meat preservation in Ottoman culinary manuscripts.[141] Other staples include Sivas kebabı, lamb or beef skewers grilled over wood fires, and mantı, small boiled dumplings filled with minced meat and yogurt-topped, both rooted in dough-based Ottoman recipes that utilized abundant local flour.[140] Soups like tarhana çorbası, fermented from yogurt, flour, and vegetables, exemplify microbial preservation suited to the area's variable harvests.[142] Local traditions, shaped by Sunni-majority conservatism alongside Alevi-Bektaşi influences from the region's historical heterogeneity, manifest in communal rituals emphasizing family and piety. Weddings feature multi-day events with kına gecesi (henna night), where the bride's hands are stained with henna amid female-only gatherings singing folk songs, followed by processions and feasts of keşkek, reflecting Ottoman customs recorded in 15th-century cookbooks for Anatolian ceremonies.[141] [143] These rites underscore endogamy and modesty, with regional variations including Alevi-inspired semah dances in mixed gatherings, though Sunni norms predominate in urban Sivas. Festivals, such as those marking religious holidays, involve shared meals of zerde (rice pudding) and collective prayers, preserving pastoral hospitality amid the area's sectarian diversity.[140]Society and controversies
Social dynamics and sectarian tensions
Sivas maintains a predominantly Sunni Muslim population, estimated at over 90% in the urban center, with Alevi communities concentrated in rural enclaves and surrounding districts, reflecting broader patterns of sectarian distribution in central Anatolia.[144] This demographic structure stems from historical population shifts, including the settlement of Sunni Muslim refugees from the Balkans and Caucasus during the late Ottoman period and early Republic, which reinforced ethnic and religious homogeneity in the city proper while preserving Alevi villages amid expulsions of non-Muslim groups like Armenians and Greeks between 1915 and 1923.[50] Such migrations contributed to low inter-sectarian intermarriage rates, with studies indicating that Alevi-Sunni unions remain rare—comprising less than 5% of marriages in mixed regions—due to familial opposition and cultural divergences that sustain endogamous practices.[145] The Sunni majority in Sivas adheres to conservative Hanafi norms, characterized by strict observance of daily prayers, gender segregation in public spaces, and resistance to secular reforms, as evidenced by consistent electoral support for Islamist-leaning parties exceeding 60% in recent national votes.[146] In contrast, Alevi enclaves preserve syncretic traditions, including cem rituals emphasizing music, poetry, and egalitarian gatherings without obligatory veiling or mosque-centric worship, fostering parallel social networks that limit integration. Sociological surveys highlight reciprocal distrust: Sunni residents often view Alevi practices as deviations from orthodox Islam, while Alevis report experiences of exclusion from urban social institutions, perpetuating spatial and associational segregation.[147] State assimilation policies, centered on the Sunni-oriented Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), have prioritized uniform Islamic education and infrastructure, allocating over 99% of religious funding to Sunni mosques while denying official recognition to Alevi cemevis, which critics argue exacerbates alienation rather than cohesion by ignoring causal cultural distinctions.[60] Empirical analyses of urban precarity in similar Anatolian settings reveal that such top-down uniformity fails to address underlying identity-based fractures, with Alevi youth in Sivas expressing heightened boundary awareness tied to historical conflicts, as per qualitative studies of activist memory.[146] Inter-community interactions remain formal and transactional, with limited voluntary associations crossing sectarian lines, underscoring how enforced homogeneity overlooks voluntary affinity formation rooted in doctrinal and ritual differences.[148]1993 Madımak events and aftermath
On July 2, 1993, during the Pir Sultan Abdal Cultural Festival in Sivas, a protest organized by Islamist groups against the event—perceived by demonstrators as promoting secularism and blasphemy, particularly due to author Aziz Nesin's involvement and his prior statements on publishing Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses—escalated into violence targeting the Madımak Hotel, where festival participants, including Alevi intellectuals, writers, and musicians, had gathered for safety.[60][149] The crowd, estimated at several thousand and influenced by local radical Sunni clerics and supporters of the Islamist Welfare Party (Refah Partisi), surrounded the hotel, chanted anti-Alevi and anti-secular slogans, and blocked emergency exits before setting the building ablaze with Molotov cocktails and other incendiaries, resulting in 35 deaths inside the hotel (predominantly Alevis) and 2 attackers killed in clashes, for a total of 37 fatalities.[150][151] Security forces, including police and gendarmes, were present but delayed intervention for hours despite the mob's actions persisting from afternoon into evening; official reports later documented inadequate riot control measures, with only limited use of tear gas and no effective cordon to protect the hotel, contributing to the high death toll as victims suffocated or burned while trapped on upper floors.[152][153] Some government-aligned accounts have attributed partial responsibility to provocations by festival organizers or alleged deep-state orchestration to exacerbate sectarian divides, though these claims lack substantiation from primary investigations and are critiqued by human rights observers as deflecting from the mob's agency and state negligence.[154][155] In the ensuing trials, starting in 1994, courts convicted 33 individuals of murder and related charges, initially sentencing 33 to death (later commuted to life imprisonment after Turkey's 2004 abolition of capital punishment) and others to varying prison terms; however, releases began in the 2010s due to retrials, good behavior reductions, and conditional discharges, with critics from Alevi advocacy groups and opposition parties decrying the leniency as evidence of insufficient accountability, especially as some convicts received pardons, including two in 2023 under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[156][157][158] The European Court of Human Rights has reviewed related cases, finding violations in procedural fairness but upholding core convictions.[159] The events intensified Sunni-Alevi sectarian tensions in Sivas and nationwide, with annual commemorations drawing tens of thousands to demand justice and conversion of the Madımak site into a museum of shame, though proposals have faced resistance from local authorities citing community divisions; reports from the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom highlight ongoing Alevi marginalization post-1993, while some analyses note attempts by the PKK to exploit the unrest for recruitment, including a retaliatory attack two days later killing 33 soldiers.[60][160][155]Sports and recreation
Major clubs and facilities
Sivasspor, the primary professional sports club in Sivas, fields a men's football team that has competed in the Süper Lig, Turkey's top professional football league, since its formation in 1967.[161] The club plays its home matches at the BG Grup 4 Eylül Stadyumu, a modern venue opened in 2016 with a seating capacity of 27,817, including 52 VIP boxes, replacing an older facility that held about 15,000 spectators.[161][162] This stadium forms part of a broader sports campus incorporating training pitches, tennis courts, and a velodrome to support club operations and community athletics.[163] Sivas also hosts Sivas Belediyespor, a municipal football club active in the TFF Second League, providing competitive play at lower professional tiers. For winter sports, the city's cold continental climate enables facilities like the Yıldız Dağı Ski Center, operational since 2010, which features five mechanical lifts, ski runs, and accommodations for approximately 300 visitors, attracting participants in skiing and snowboarding.[164] Niche activities include rugby through Sivas Kangals Rugby FC, a club promoting the sport in a region where it ranks outside the top 15 disciplines nationally.[165] Youth participation is facilitated through national federations, with local programs emphasizing football academies tied to Sivasspor and university-level training at institutions like Sivas Cumhuriyet University, though specific enrollment figures remain limited in public data.[166]Local sporting events
Sivasspor's home fixtures in the Süper Lig and Turkish Cup serve as central recurring sporting events, attracting average crowds of 6,152 spectators per match during the 2024–25 season and fostering communal gatherings that reinforce local identity in a city of around 350,000 residents.[167] The club's breakthrough 2021–22 Turkish Cup triumph—the first major honor in its history after defeating Kayserispor 3–2 in extra time on May 26, 2022—sparked widespread celebrations and sustained fan loyalty, with subsequent cup campaigns drawing heightened attendance and media focus on provincial underdogs.[168] The annual Yunus Emre Koç Memorial Road Race and Half Marathon, initiated after the 2016 death of the national athlete in a traffic accident, commemorates his legacy while encouraging mass participation in running; editions have included routes starting from key venues like 4 Eylül Kapalı Spor Salonu, drawing local runners and promoting endurance sports amid Central Anatolia's terrain.[169][170] Regional wrestling tournaments, including the 23-and-Under Turkish Wrestling Championship held in Sivas in February 2025, highlight the area's heritage in the discipline, where Olympic gold medalist Taha Akgül—born locally—has elevated youth involvement and national selection pipelines.[171] Women's engagement in these events lags, with conservative cultural norms in Sivas—characterized by emphasis on familial duties and modesty—acting as primary barriers to female athletic participation, as evidenced by studies on regional gym and sport uptake showing social stigma and limited infrastructure access for women.[172][173] Such dynamics contribute to male-dominated crowds and competitors, though incremental gains occur via university programs and national pushes for equity.[173]International relations
Twin cities and partnerships
Sivas has formal twin city partnerships with select international municipalities, primarily to facilitate cultural exchanges, trade opportunities, and educational initiatives such as student mobility programs. These agreements, often established after 2000, emphasize practical cooperation over ceremonial ties, including joint economic projects and municipal knowledge sharing.[174] The following table summarizes verified international twin cities:| City | Country | Establishment Date | Key Focus Areas |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gradačac | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Not specified | Cultural and economic coordination |
| Adama | Ethiopia | 15 May 2008 | Mutual exchanges in education and trade |
| Alicante | Spain | Not specified | Urban development and cultural ties |
Notable individuals
Historical figures
![Celestial Medresah - Gökmedrese, Sivas.jpg][float-right] Sahip Ata Fahreddin Ali (died 1285), a prominent vizier of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, played a pivotal role in Sivas through his patronage of architectural projects, including the Gök Medrese completed in 1271 during the reign of Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III.[38] As atabeg and de facto administrator after the death of Pervane Mu ineddin Süleyman in 1277, he commissioned multiple medreses in Anatolian cities, with Sivas benefiting from his efforts to bolster Seljuk cultural and educational institutions amid Mongol influence.[177] His contributions grounded Sivas as a center of Seljuk learning, evidenced by the enduring turquoise-tiled facade of the Gök Medrese symbolizing astronomical and theological studies.[38] Shams al-Din Juvayni (died 1283), an Ilkhanid vizier of Persian origin, extended influence in Sivas by funding the Çifte Minareli Medrese in 1271, reflecting the intertwined Seljuk-Ilkhanid patronage networks.[178] Though not a native, his architectural legacy in the city underscores the role of high administrators in shaping Sivas's medieval Islamic heritage during a period of transition from Seljuk to Mongol oversight.[178] Pir Sultan Abdal (c. 1480–1560), born in Banaz village within modern Sivas Province, emerged as a seminal Alevi-Bektashi poet and folk hero in the Ottoman era.[179] His verses critiqued Ottoman authority and Safavid influences, leading to his execution in Sivas for alleged rebellion against local governance around 1560.[180] Composing in Turkish, his poetry preserved oral traditions of resistance and spirituality, influencing Alevi cultural identity through themes of justice and mysticism drawn from primary folkloric reconstructions.[181]Modern contributors
Ahmet Ayık (1938–), born in Eskiköy village of Doğanşar district in Sivas Province, won Olympic gold in freestyle wrestling at the 1968 Mexico City Games in the 97 kg category and silver at the 1964 Tokyo Games, alongside world championships in 1965 and 1966, elevating Turkey's international wrestling profile with a career record of 52 wins in 58 major bouts.[182][183] Yücel Kanpolat (1941–2016), a neurosurgeon born in Sivas, pioneered percutaneous radiofrequency rhizotomy techniques for trigeminal neuralgia treatment, performing over 3,000 procedures and authoring more than 100 peer-reviewed publications on pain management and stereotactic neurosurgery, influencing global standards in minimally invasive neural interventions.[184] Prof. Dr. Tolga Karaköy, affiliated with Sivas University of Science and Technology, directed a 14-year breeding program yielding three registered wheat varieties—Sivas 14 YIL, Sivas 14 ALTIN, and Sivas 14 ZIRVE—in 2024, derived from evaluating 2,500 genotypes for drought resistance and yield, marking the first such registrations in Sivas and supporting regional food security amid climate variability.[88][89]References
- https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Sivas