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Valerius Licinianus Licinius (/lɪˈsɪniəs/;[4] Greek: Λικίνιος; c. 265 – 325) was Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign, he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis (AD 324), and was later executed on the orders of Constantine.

Key Information

Early reign

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Born to a Dacian[3][5] peasant family in Moesia Superior, Licinius accompanied his close childhood friend and future emperor Galerius, on the Persian expedition in 298.[3] He was trusted enough by Galerius that in 307 he was sent as an envoy to Italy, to attempt to reach some sort of agreement with the usurper Maxentius.[3] When Galerius went to deal with Maxentius personally after the death of Severus II, he left the eastern provinces in Licinius's care.[6]

Upon his return to the east Galerius elevated Licinius to the rank of Augustus in the West on 11 November 308, and under his immediate command were the Balkan provinces of Illyricum, Thrace and Pannonia.[5] In 310 he took command of the war against the Sarmatians, inflicting a severe defeat on them.[7] On the death of Galerius in May 311,[8] Licinius entered into an agreement with Maximinus Daza to share the eastern provinces between them. By this point, not only was Licinius the official Augustus of the west but he also possessed part of the eastern provinces as well, as the Hellespont and the Bosporus became the dividing line, with Licinius taking the European provinces and Maximinus taking the Asian.[5]

An alliance between Maximinus and Maxentius forced the two remaining emperors to enter into a formal agreement with each other.[6] So, in March of 313, Licinius married Flavia Julia Constantia, half-sister of Constantine I,[citation needed] at Mediolanum (now Milan); they had a son, Licinius the Younger, in 315. Their marriage was the occasion for the jointly-issued "Edict of Milan" that reissued Galerius's previous edict allowing Christianity (and any religion one might choose) to be professed in the Empire,[5] with additional dispositions that restored confiscated properties to Christian congregations and exempted Christian clergy from municipal civic duties.[9] The redaction of the edict as reproduced by Lactantius – who follows the text affixed by Licinius in Nicomedia on 14 June 313, after Maximinus's defeat – uses neutral language, expressing a will to propitiate "any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens".[10]

Brown coin depicting Licinius with laurel wreath facing right
Follis minted at Londinium, c. 311. Legend: imp licinius p f aug.
Triumph of Licinius on a cameo in the BnF Museum.[11][12]
Gold coin depicting Licinius with laurel wreath facing right
Solidus minted at Trier, c. 310–313. Obverse legend: licini-us p f aug.

Maximinus Daza in the meantime decided to attack Licinius. Leaving Syria with 70,000 men, he reached Bithynia, although the harsh weather he encountered along the way had gravely weakened his army. In April 313, he crossed the Bosporus and went to Byzantium, which was held by Licinius's troops. Undeterred, he took the town after an eleven-day siege. He moved to Heraclea, which he captured after a short siege, before moving his forces to the first posting station. With a much smaller body of men, possibly around 30,000,[13] Licinius arrived at Adrianople while Daza was still besieging Heraclea. Before the decisive engagement, Licinius allegedly had a vision in which an angel recited him a generic prayer that could be adopted by all cults which Licinius then repeated to his soldiers.[14] On 30 April 313, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Tzirallum, and Daza's forces were crushed. Daza escaped, disguised as a slave, and fled to Nicomedia,[6] where he fortified the area around the Cilician Gates. Licinius's army broke through and Daza retreated to Tarsus, where Licinius continued to press him on land and sea. The war between them ended only with Daza's death in August 313.[5]

Licinius sought out and killed multiple relatives of the Tetrarchs: Daza's wife and two children, Severus's son Flavius Severianus, Galerius's son Candidianus, Diocletian's wife Prisca, and Galeria Valeria, daughter of Diocletian and wife of Galerius.[15]

Given that Constantine had already crushed his rival Maxentius in 312, the two men decided to divide the Roman world between them. As a result of this settlement, the Tetrarchy was replaced by a system of two emperors, called Augusti: Licinius became Augustus of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, became Augustus of the West.[8]

After making the pact, Licinius rushed immediately to the East to deal with another threat, an invasion by the Persian Sassanid Empire.[6]

Conflict with Constantine I

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See also: Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324 AD)

In 316, a civil war erupted between Licinius and Constantine, in which Constantine used the pretext that Licinius was harbouring Senecio, whom Constantine accused of plotting to overthrow him.[6] Constantine prevailed at the Battle of Cibalae in Pannonia (8 October 316).[5] As a result of this defeat Licinius named Valerius Valens as his co-emperor (whom he originally intended to replace Constantine), only for Licinius to suffer a humiliating defeat on the plains in the Battle of Mardia (also known as the Battle of Campus Ardiensis) in Thrace which occurred either in late 316 or early 317. The two emperors were reconciled after these two battles and Licinius had his co-emperor Valens killed.[5]

Over the next seven years, the two imperial colleagues maintained an uneasy truce.[6] Licinius kept himself busy with a campaign against the Sarmatians in 318,[5] but temperatures rose again in 321 when Constantine pursued some Sarmatians, who had been ravaging some territory in his realm, across the Danube into what was technically Licinius's territory.[5] When he repeated this with another invasion, this time by the Goths who were pillaging Thrace under their leader Rausimod, Licinius complained that Constantine had broken the treaty between them.

Constantine wasted no time going on the offensive. Licinius's fleet of 350 ships was defeated by Constantine's fleet in 323. Then in 324, Constantine, tempted by the "advanced age and unpopular vices"[8][6] of his colleague, again declared war against him and having defeated his army of 165,000 men[16] at the Battle of Adrianople (3 July 324), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium.[8][5] The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius in the Battle of the Hellespont by Crispus, Constantine's eldest son and Caesar, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the Battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18 September),[8] resulted in Licinius's final submission.[6] In this conflict Licinius was supported by the Gothic prince Alica. Due to the intervention of Flavia Julia Constantia, Constantine's sister and also Licinius's wife, both Licinius and his co-emperor Martinian were initially spared, Licinius being imprisoned in Thessalonica, Martinian in Cappadocia; however, both former emperors were subsequently executed. After his defeat, Licinius attempted to regain power with Gothic support, but his plans were exposed, and he was sentenced to death. While attempting to flee to the Goths, Licinius was apprehended at Thessalonica. Constantine had him hanged, accusing him of conspiring to raise troops among the barbarians.[6][17]

Character and legacy

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One of a hoard of five or six identical silver plates celebrating Licinius's 10th anniversary as Emperor, discovered in Niš, Serbia, and now in the British Museum in London[18]

As part of Constantine's attempts to decrease Licinius's popularity, he actively portrayed his brother-in-law as a pagan supporter. This may not have been the case; contemporary evidence tends to suggest that he was at least a committed supporter of Christians at one point.[citation needed] He co-authored the Edict of Milan which ended the Great Persecution, and re-affirmed the rights of Christians in his half of the empire. He also added the Christian symbol to his armies, and attempted to regulate the affairs of the Church hierarchy just as Constantine and his successors were to do. His wife was a devout Christian.[19]

It is possible that he converted.[20] However, Eusebius of Caesarea, writing under the rule of Constantine, charges him with expelling Christians from the Palace and ordering military sacrifices to pagan gods, as well as interfering with the Church's internal procedures and organization.[21] It has been theorized that he originally supported Christians along with Constantine, but later in his life turned against them and to paganism.[20]

Finally, on Licinius's death, his memory was branded with infamy; his statues were thrown down; and by edict, all his laws and judicial proceedings during his reign were abolished.[6] Such official erasure from the public record has come to be called damnatio memoriae.

Family tree

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References

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Licinius

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Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c. 265 – 325) was a who ruled from 308 to 324 as the colleague and later rival of Constantine I, emerging from humble Illyrian peasant origins to hold rank in the eastern provinces following the Diocletianic Tetrarchy's collapse. Appointed by at the Conference of Carnuntum on 11 November 308, he initially governed , , and Illyricum, defeating Sarmatian invaders in 310 and earning Germanicus Maximus and Sarmaticus Maximus titles for his military successes. In 313, Licinius defeated the rival augustus Maximinus Daia, consolidating control over Asia Minor, , and , and that same year co-issued the with Constantine, proclaiming religious toleration across the empire and restoring confiscated Christian properties, a policy rooted in pragmatic governance rather than personal conviction. He married Constantine's half-sister Constantia in a bid to cement alliance, but mounting tensions erupted into civil war in 314, with Licinius suffering defeats at the Battle of Cibalae and subsequent engagements, leading to a temporary partition of the empire in 317. By 320, Licinius reversed course on religious policy, issuing edicts restricting Christian practices in the East, which Constantine cited as for renewed conflict in 324; Licinius's forces were decisively beaten at the and the , forcing his abdication on 19 September 324. Exiled to Thessalonica under , he was executed in spring 325 on charges of conspiracy, followed by the strangulation of his young son , marking the end of divided imperial rule and Constantine's unchallenged dominance. Licinius's reign, though marred by fratricidal strife, temporarily stabilized the eastern frontier and facilitated a brief era of before the empire's drift toward Christian .

Origins and Rise

Background and Early Career

Valerius Licinianus Licinius was born circa 260 AD to a family of Dacian peasants in the Roman province of Moesia Superior, corresponding to modern-day eastern and western . His origins in this frontier region, characterized by mixed Illyrian and Dacian populations under Roman administration, reflected the diverse ethnic makeup of the empire's Balkan military recruiting grounds. Licinius pursued a career in the during the reign of , advancing rapidly through merit amid the empire's defensive needs against external threats. He formed a close friendship with , a fellow low-born soldier who rose to prominence as Caesar in 293 AD, sharing tent and counsel from the early stages of their service. This alliance positioned Licinius to participate in key operations, including accompanying on the Persian campaign of 297 AD, where Roman forces under 's recovered territories lost to Sasanian incursions following an initial setback in 296 AD. By the early 300s AD, Licinius had earned sufficient trust from to undertake sensitive diplomatic tasks, such as an embassy to in around 306–307 AD, aimed at resolving succession disputes after Diocletian's abdication in 305 AD; the mission failed as rejected subordination to the eastern rulers. Such roles underscored the Tetrarchy's emphasis on proven loyalty and competence for promotion, enabling men of peasant extraction like Licinius to ascend in a system prioritizing imperial defense over aristocratic pedigree.

Elevation to Imperial Rank

Following the abdication of in 305 and the ensuing instability marked by usurpations such as 's seizure of in 306 and Severus II's execution by in 307, convened the Conference of in November 308 to reorganize the imperial college. On 11 November 308, elevated his trusted military colleague Licinius directly to the rank of , assigning him oversight of , Illyricum, and to fill the vacancy left by Severus and counter western challengers. This appointment, bypassing the intermediate Caesar position held by Constantine I and Maximinus Daia, reflected 's preference for personal loyalty over strict tetrarchic protocol, though it fueled resentment among the Caesars who viewed it as an infringement on their advancement prospects. Licinius, previously a provincial governor without prior tetrarchic experience, leveraged his longstanding friendship with Galerius—forged through shared campaigns—to secure this unexpected promotion amid the power vacuum. The causal impetus lay in the need for a reliable administrator to stabilize the Danubian provinces against barbarian incursions and internal dissent, rather than expanding into contested western territories. Upon Galerius's death in early May 311, Licinius promptly asserted control over the deceased Augustus's European dominions by meeting Maximinus Daia at the straits, where they agreed to a partition: Licinius retained the Balkan and Thracian regions, while Maximinus claimed Asia Minor and the East. To anchor his authority, Licinius based operations in for oversight of the central and for eastern coordination, enabling defensive postures against Maximinus's ambitions without precipitating open conflict at that stage. This diplomatic maneuvering underscored Licinius's initial strategy of consolidation through negotiated boundaries rather than military assertion.

Rule in the Eastern Empire

Consolidation After Diocletian's Abdication

Following Galerius's death on 5 May 311, Licinius advanced to claim authority over the eastern provinces, initially agreeing with Maximinus Daia to partition the region along the and Hellespont. Daia's of in spring 313 disrupted this arrangement, leading Licinius to mobilize his army and confront the rival near Heraclea. On 30 April 313, Licinius's forces decisively defeated Daia's larger army of approximately 70,000 men at the Battle of Tzirallum, employing tactical superiority and possibly invoking divine favor through Christian symbols, as later reported in contemporary accounts. Daia fled eastward across the into , suffering further defeats that compelled him to retreat to Tarsus in , where he was besieged and died in late summer 313, likely by amid despair and illness. This victory consolidated Licinius's control over the entire eastern empire, annexing Daia's domains including Asia Minor, , , and , thereby ending the Tetrarchic division in the East. Numismatic evidence from mints in cities like and Antioch, featuring Licinius's portrait with imperial titles and victory motifs, attests to his unchallenged sovereignty in these regions by mid-313. To secure his rule, Licinius purged Daia's inner circle, executing his wife, children—including the Caesar Maximus—and prominent supporters such as prefects and governors who posed loyalty risks, thereby eliminating immediate threats from residual factions. He then integrated the eastern , retaining Diocletian's administrative framework of dioceses and over 100 provinces to ensure fiscal efficiency and military readiness, while selectively upholding effective reforms like enhanced taxation and supply systems that stabilized revenue flows despite the failure of price edicts to curb inflation. Licinius further legitimized his authority through strategic alliances and dynastic measures, marrying Constantine's half-sister Constantia in late 313 to formalize eastern-western cooperation and deter aggression. In March 317, as part of post-conflict stabilization, he appointed his infant son, (born c. 315), as Caesar, initiating a hereditary line within the Tetrarchic tradition to reinforce imperial continuity.

Military Campaigns and Defense

Licinius secured his first documented external victory against Sarmatian raiders along the , likely in the late spring or early summer of 310, repelling incursions into Roman territory north of the river. This success, achieved during his early tenure as Augustus, demonstrated effective mobilization of Illyrian-recruited troops familiar with the terrain, leveraging his regional origins for rapid response to nomadic threats. Between 315 and 316, Licinius campaigned against Gothic forces encroaching from beyond the , particularly while based at , inflicting defeats that stabilized the Moesian and Thracian sectors. Evidence from contemporary accounts indicates this victory prompted a foedus arrangement, binding Gothic groups to provide auxiliary service, which enhanced Licinius's defensive capabilities without extensive territorial expansion. Such outcomes underscored a pragmatic prioritizing over offensive conquests, with panegyrical sources and imperial titulature reflecting these triumphs prior to 316. In response to Sassanid pressures, Licinius directed military efforts eastward in late 313 through early 314, conducting operations against Persian forces probing Roman holdings in and . This defensive orientation emphasized logistical sustainment for eastern legions stationed in key fortresses like Nisibis and Antioch, reallocating resources from garrisons to counter intermittent threats without provoking full-scale war. His approach, rooted in Illyrian-honed realism, fortified supply lines and from hardy provincial manpower, though it diverted assets that might have bolstered northern defenses amid recurring barbarian migrations.

Administrative and Economic Measures

Licinius continued the Diocletianic administrative divisions in the eastern provinces, subdividing larger territories into smaller units to improve tax assessment and collection efficiency. This structure, inherited from Diocletian's reforms around 293–305 CE, enabled more localized oversight in diverse areas spanning Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, where provincial governors managed fiscal obligations under central directives. By preserving these arrangements, Licinius ensured steady revenue flows essential for military maintenance without introducing major reorganizations during his rule from 308 to 324 CE. In , Licinius upheld the system of his predecessors, issuing aurei in eastern mints at approximately 5.4575 grams—equivalent to 1/60 of a Roman pound—while silver and denominations faced persistent debasement. hoards from the period reflect circulation of these issues alongside earlier types, suggesting an attempt to stabilize local economies through consistent minting rather than radical reform, though pressures remained evident until Constantine's later innovations. Fiscal measures under Licinius reverted to Diocletian's exemption practices for certain groups, as discussed in analyses of his policy alignment with prior imperial systems. Licinius invested in logistical to support eastern stability, notably by directing Egyptian grain shipments to via established ports like and Heraclea, bolstering food supplies for troops and populations in zones. Such initiatives, leveraging existing networks and maritime routes, contributed to short-term economic resilience amid ongoing civil tensions, with maintenance of Thracian vias facilitating rapid mobilization.

Alliance and Rivalry with Constantine

The Edict of Milan and Initial Cooperation

In early 313, following Licinius's victory over Maximinus Daia, Constantine I and Licinius met at (modern ) and issued the in February, proclaiming across the empire for and all other faiths, while restoring confiscated church properties to prevent further civil discord from ongoing persecutions. The edict's text emphasized that individuals should freely practice their chosen religion without interference, framing this policy as a pragmatic measure to restore public tranquility and imperial stability after years of divisive enforcement under previous rulers like , rather than a profound ideological shift. This joint decree effectively paused the Great Persecution in the East, where Licinius held sway, by prioritizing administrative expediency over doctrinal favoritism, as evidenced by its neutral language extending protections to pagans alongside . To formalize their alliance as co-Augusti, Licinius married , Constantine's half-sister, in around February 313, a union that produced an heir, Licinius the Younger (born circa 315), thereby linking their dynasties and ensuring mutual legitimacy in their respective domains. This matrimonial bond underscored the political calculus of the partnership, aimed at dividing the empire's governance without immediate rivalry, as Licinius controlled the eastern provinces while Constantine dominated the west. The initial cooperation manifested in shared imperial honors, including their joint consulship in 313, and reciprocal acknowledgments of authority, with inscriptions and records attesting to coordinated appointments that reinforced a balanced tetrarchic-like co-rulership. These measures, verified through contemporary epigraphic evidence, reflected a strategic recognition of each emperor's and territorial claims, fostering short-term unity to consolidate power post-Diocletianic abdications without ceding unilateral dominance.

Emerging Conflicts and Diplomatic Strains

Following Galerius's death on 5 May 311, Licinius rapidly secured control over the European provinces of the eastern empire, including and , which had been under Galerius's administration, thereby expanding his territorial authority in the without immediate challenge from Constantine. These gains positioned Licinius to consolidate power eastward after his victory over Maximinus Daia on 30 April 313 at Tzirallum, yet they fueled latent border frictions with Constantine, who maintained claims to influence in Illyricum and adjacent regions through prior agreements and presence. Neither emperor formally demarcated these zones until escalating incidents, reflecting mutual ambitions to dominate the strategically vital frontier rather than cooperative partition. Tensions intensified in 314 when Constantine sought to appoint Bassianus—brother of Licinius's and married to Constantine's sister —as Caesar in the western territories, a move Licinius opposed as an encroachment on his sphere. Bassianus, allegedly instigated by to intrigue against Constantine, was arrested and executed by Constantine's forces in or on charges of conspiracy, prompting Constantine to demand Senecio's extradition. Licinius complied by deposing and executing Senecio to avert immediate rupture, but the incident, detailed in pro-Constantine panegyrics and later by Zosimus (a source skeptical of Christian emperors), sowed accusations of treachery on both sides, with each ruler viewing the other's associates as threats to dynastic stability. Diplomatic efforts faltered amid reciprocal portraying the opponent as a undermining the post-tetrarchic order, though no surviving correspondence details specific negotiations between 314 and 316. Licinius's retention of Balkan strongholds like heightened Constantine's suspicions of encirclement, while Constantine's maneuvers in signaled preemptive assertion, culminating in border skirmishes by late 315 that rendered untenable and precipitated open conflict in 316. These strains arose from pragmatic power calculations—control over revenue-rich provinces and legions—rather than ideological clashes, as both emperors prioritized territorial security over sustained partnership forged in 313.

Civil Wars Against Constantine

The War of 316–317

In late 316, Constantine launched an invasion into Licinius' territories in , initiating the first civil war between the two augusti. Constantine's forces advanced rapidly, catching Licinius off guard and leading to a decisive confrontation at the Battle of Cibalae (modern , ) on October 8, 316. Despite Licinius commanding a larger , Constantine's tactical superiority—employing flanking maneuvers and exploiting the terrain—resulted in a resounding victory, with Licinius suffering heavy losses and fleeing eastward to and then Hadrianople (modern , ). Pursuing his retreating foe, Constantine won further engagements, including a victory at Campus Ardiensis near Hadrianople, which further weakened Licinius' position in the . However, Licinius regrouped his remaining legions and retreated to , where he leveraged his superior naval forces to control the Hellespont strait, blocking Constantine's advance into Asia Minor and creating a strategic . This maritime dominance preserved and the eastern provinces for Licinius, preventing Constantine from achieving total collapse of his rival's regime despite land-based successes. By early 317, exhaustion and logistical strains prompted negotiations, culminating in a peace treaty at Serdica (modern , ). The agreement recognized the sons of both emperors as caesars to secure dynastic parity: Constantine elevated his eldest son (c. 305–326) and newborn Constantine II (b. January 316) to the rank, while Licinius named his son (b. 315) as caesar, adopting Constantine's children in a gesture of nominal unity. Territorial concessions favored Constantine, granting him , , and Macedonia, but Licinius retained control over , Minor, , and , maintaining the empire's east-west divide.

The Final War of 324

In early 324, renewed conflict erupted after Constantine declared Licinius a , citing the latter's orders to seize church properties, ban Christian assemblies, and execute bishops such as those in and Antioch, actions documented by the contemporary bishop of Caesarea, though potentially amplified to justify Constantine's aggression. Licinius, positioned with approximately 130,000 troops in , sought to block Constantine's advance near Adrianople (modern ), while Constantine commanded around 100,000 men, including Illyrian legions and mobile . On July 3, 324, the armies engaged at Adrianople, where Constantine's forces, leveraging superior mobility, outflanked Licinius's static infantry formations; a decisive assault shattered the enemy center, inflicting heavy casualties estimated at 34,000 slain or captured by the pagan historian Zosimus, forcing Licinius to flee with remnants toward . Licinius's attempted counteroffensives during the retreat faltered against Constantine's pursuit, depleting his cohesion and supplies. Constantine promptly besieged Byzantium by land, deploying artillery and sappers to undermine walls, while his fleet under admiral Abantus established a naval across the to starve the garrison. Licinius dispatched his superior squadron of 350 ships to contest the straits, but in the ensuing , Abantus's vessels routed them through tactical maneuvering and boarding actions, sinking or capturing over 130 vessels and severing Licinius's maritime logistics. Logistical collapse ensued for Licinius, as the naval defeat isolated 's defenders from reinforcements and provisions from Asia Minor; failed sorties from the city yielded minimal gains against Constantine's entrenched positions. Under these constraints, Licinius evacuated his forces by night across the to on approximately August 10, prompting the immediate surrender of to Constantine, who had neutralized the eastern gateway without a prolonged assault. credits Constantine's triumphs to providential storms aiding his fleet, a claim reflective of favoring the victor, while Zosimus stresses empirical factors like troop quality and terrain, underscoring the partisan lenses of surviving accounts.

Downfall and Execution

Defeat at Chrysopolis

The took place on 18 September 324 near in , serving as the culminating land engagement of the between Constantine and Licinius. Following Licinius's from earlier defeats at Adrianople and naval losses in the Hellespont, Constantine crossed the and advanced into Asia Minor, forcing Licinius to position his army along elevated terrain overlooking the plain to leverage defensive advantages. Licinius commanded a numerically superior force, estimated at up to 130,000 infantry and supplemented by his remaining fleet elements, while Constantine fielded roughly 80,000-120,000 troops hardened by prior victories. Constantine's victory stemmed from tactical innovation and cohesive command, deploying his legions in a dense formation for a direct that exploited gaps in Licinius's extended lines, despite the terrain favoring the defender. Licinius's army, hampered by divided — including reliance on subordinates like the Martinianus for coordination—failed to mount an effective counter, suffering heavy casualties of 25,000-30,000 killed or routed, as reported in contemporary accounts. Zosimus, a late antique historian critical of Constantine's regime, attributes the collapse to Licinius's inability to unify his disparate units under pressure, contrasting with Constantine's centralized strategy that emphasized disciplined over Licinius's dispersed reliance on and fleet support. In the battle's immediate aftermath, Licinius fled eastward to with approximately 30,000 surviving troops, abandoning his fleet which provided no reinforcement due to prior defeats and logistical failures, as evidenced by deserter testimonies and the rapid disintegration of his command structure. This flight underscored Licinius's strategic miscalculation in splitting forces across land and sea theaters, allowing Constantine to consolidate control over the eastern provinces without prolonged pursuit.

Deposition, Trial, and Death

Following his defeat at the in September 324, Licinius surrendered to Constantine and was formally deposed as , ending the tetrarchic system of co-emperorship. Constantine initially spared Licinius's life at the intercession of his sister Constantia, Licinius's wife, who pleaded for mercy on the grounds of their marriage and familial ties; as a result, Licinius was stripped of imperial authority but allowed to retire as a under guard in Thessalonica. In spring 325, Licinius was accused of conspiring against Constantine, including attempts to incite rebellion and communicate with external powers, prompting his execution in Thessalonica without record of a formal . The approximately six-month interval between deposition and death, during which Constantine consolidated control over the eastern provinces and convened the Council of Nicaea, indicates a deliberate postponement rather than impulsive retribution, allowing time for political stabilization. Licinius's young son, , who had been named Caesar in 317, was initially spared but executed in 326 on similar charges of plotting, ensuring the elimination of potential rival claimants.

Family and Personal Life

Marriages and Offspring

Licinius wed , half-sister of Constantine I and daughter of , in February or March 313 at (modern ), sealing the alliance between the two Augusti after Licinius's victory over Maximinus Daia. This union produced a single attested offspring, their son Valerius Licinianus Licinius, commonly called Licinius the Younger, born circa 315. Licinius the Younger was designated Caesar on 1 March 317, during the reconciliation following the war of 316–317, to parallel Constantine's son and secure Licinius's dynasty. Following Licinius I's defeat and abdication in 324, the young Caesar was initially spared execution due to Constantia's intercession with Constantine but was ultimately put to death in 326, likely at Pola (modern ), as part of the purges eliminating potential rivals. No other children, including daughters, are verifiably recorded in contemporary sources such as coins, inscriptions, or histories by and Zosimus.

Relations with Constantine's Dynasty

Licinius formed a familial alliance with Constantine's dynasty through his marriage to , Constantine's half-sister, which was arranged to cement their political partnership following the . The betrothal occurred late in 311 or early in 312, with the wedding taking place in in early 313, shortly after Licinius's defeat of Maximinus Daia. This union produced a son, (also known as Valerius Licinianus Licinius), born around 315 and elevated to the rank of Caesar in 317 as part of the reconciliation after the first civil war. The marriage initially aligned their interests, fostering shared rule over the empire and delaying open hostilities, though underlying territorial and religious tensions persisted. Despite these ties, the familial connection proved insufficient to avert the escalation of rivalry, particularly after Licinius's defeats in the wars of 316–317 and 324. Kinship offered Licinius limited leverage; for instance, during the reconciliation of 317, the elevation of Licinius II to Caesar symbolized mutual recognition of dynastic claims, yet it masked Constantine's growing dominance in the Balkans and eastern territories ceded from Licinius. By 324, as military confrontations intensified, the alliance via Constantia no longer constrained Constantine's ambitions, with the familial bond serving more as a diplomatic formality than a binding deterrent to conflict. Following Licinius's surrender after the on 18 September 324, Constantia's intercession prompted Constantine to initially spare her husband's life, exiling him to Thessalonica rather than immediate execution. This mercy was short-lived; Licinius was strangled on Constantine's orders in early 325, reportedly due to fears of lingering threats from his supporters. Constantia, pregnant at the time of the defeat, gave birth to a posthumous daughter who did not survive, and she herself died later in 326. , despite his status as Constantine's nephew and Caesar, was executed shortly thereafter—likely in 325 or 326 at Pola—viewed as a potential focal point for opposition amid Constantine's consolidation of power and elimination of rival claimants. These events underscored how dynastic kinship delayed but ultimately yielded to the imperatives of imperial security, with Constantine prioritizing the stability of his own lineage over extended family loyalties.

Religious Policies

Tolerance and the Shift to Persecution

In February 313, Licinius co-authored the with Constantine, formally ending the by granting Christians the right to practice their faith openly and mandating the restitution of church properties, lands, and other assets confiscated since 303. Promulgated by Licinius in the East from on June 13, 313, the edict emphasized universal religious liberty, stating that subjects "should have the liberty to follow that mode of which to each of you appears the most acceptable," thereby restoring confiscated Christian sites empire-wide and prohibiting governors from denying such restorations. After his partial defeat by Constantine in the war of 316–317, Licinius shifted toward antagonism against in his eastern territories, issuing restrictive edicts around 320 that expelled clergy and Christian officials from , banned public church assemblies, and required sacrifices to pagan deities by soldiers and civil servants. These measures aimed to curb Christian influence in administration and military ranks, with non-compliance leading to dismissal or execution in select cases. Eusebius of Caesarea detailed the implementation, claiming Licinius ordered church demolitions, scripture burnings, and bishop imprisonments across eastern cities like Amasea and Antioch, though , composing his under Constantine's patronage post-324, exhibited bias favoring Constantine's regime by amplifying Licinius' actions to depict him as a persecutor justifying . Enforcement remained selective and regionally confined to the East, prioritizing pagan preferment in offices without reinstating Diocletian's universal edicts; documented martyrdoms numbered in the dozens—such as the 40 soldiers at Sebaste in 320—far fewer than the thousands under prior empire-wide campaigns, corroborated by the absence of widespread archaeological disruptions to Christian sites.

Specific Measures and Impacts

Licinius enacted rescripts around 320 that prohibited the election of new bishops without imperial authorization and banned episcopal assemblies, framing these restrictions as safeguards against potentially incited by church leaders' involvement in political matters. These decrees curtailed the church's administrative autonomy in his eastern provinces, leading to irregular leadership transitions and suppressed synods that had previously addressed doctrinal and disciplinary issues. Concurrently, Licinius ordered the revival of mandatory pagan sacrifices within the army, diverging from the religious tolerance outlined in the 313 co-signed with Constantine. , including , faced demands to offer libations to traditional gods as oaths of loyalty, resulting in the expulsion or execution of non-compliant soldiers; a documented instance occurred in 320 at Sebaste, where 40 Christian legionaries refused participation and endured freezing exposure followed by death. This policy exacerbated tensions, as it targeted perceived as potential fifth columnists amid rivalry with Constantine, prompting widespread dismissals from ranks and contributing to operational strains in Licinius' forces. The combined effects included localized church closures and demolitions in urban areas, alongside restrictions confining worship to rural outskirts to minimize gatherings deemed subversive. Quantifiable disruptions were evident in regions like , where episcopal vacancies persisted and assembly bans fragmented community structures, though the remained regionally varied rather than empire-wide. Many eastern , facing these pressures, relocated to Constantine's western territories for refuge, bolstering his support base and underscoring the measures' role in accelerating religious polarization between the co-emperors' domains.

Legacy and Historiography

Ancient Sources and Biases

The principal ancient literary sources on Licinius derive from authors aligned with Constantine, introducing significant pro-Constantinian bias that portrays Licinius as a tyrannical persecutor of to legitimize his rival's conquests and religious policies. of Caesarea, a and contemporary chronicler, in works such as the Ecclesiastical History and , initially depicts Licinius as a co-author of edicts but later as an apostate who instigated renewed persecutions after 320 CE, emphasizing divine favor toward Constantine. , in De Mortibus Persecutorum composed around 315 CE and updated post-324 CE, similarly frames Licinius as influenced by demons and reverting to anti- measures, reflecting the rhetorical agenda of early against perceived betrayers of tolerance. In counterpoint, the late antique pagan historian Zosimus, authoring New History in the early CE, critiques Constantine's regime and offers a relatively more neutral or sympathetic assessment of Licinius, attributing the emperors' conflict to ambition rather than religious zealotry, though Zosimus' own anti-Christian animus colors his narrative against the broader . This divergence underscores the sectarian lens through which events were recorded, with Christian sources amplifying Licinius' alleged persecutions—such as executions of bishops and restrictions on church assemblies—to align with theological interpretations of Constantine's victory as providential. Material evidence, including and , reveals Licinius' self-propaganda emphasizing Jovian patronage, as seen in coin legends like IOVI CONSERVATORI depicting as protector, with imperial titles invoking divine conservation, paralleling but distinct from Constantine's invocations of before his overt . Inscriptions bearing Licinius' Iovius epithets further attest to his promotion of traditional pagan , contrasting with Constantine's evolving solar and Christian , yet both rulers employed such media for legitimacy amid civil strife. The absence of memoirs or panegyrics directly from Licinius' court—suppressed or lost following his defeat—forces reliance on adversarial accounts, compelling historians to approach the narrative with skepticism toward unsubstantiated claims of persecution or tyranny, prioritizing cross-verifiable data over partisan rhetoric.

Achievements, Criticisms, and Debates

Licinius consolidated control over the eastern following his decisive victory over Maximinus Daia at the Battle of Tzirallum on April 30, 313, which eliminated a key rival and stabilized the region after the Tetrarchy's fragmentation. He further bolstered eastern defenses through military campaigns, including successes against Sarmatian incursions along the frontier and a victory over Gothic forces around 314-315, which temporarily secured the and Balkan borders against barbarian pressures. These efforts contributed to a period of relative administrative stability in the East, where Licinius maintained imperial infrastructure and coinage reforms to support economic recovery post-Diocletianic persecutions. A significant achievement was Licinius' co-authorship of the in February 313, issued jointly with Constantine, which granted legal tolerance to and restored confiscated properties, marking a pivotal shift toward and ending widespread imperial persecution of the faith. This edict's legacy lay in its causal role in enabling Christianity's public expansion, though Licinius' adherence to its principles waned over time. Critics, drawing primarily from pro-Constantinian sources like , portray Licinius as initiating aggressive civil conflicts, including the 316 war where his forces clashed with Constantine's in , resulting in heavy losses and territorial concessions at the . His later policies are faulted for suppressing Christian bishops, closing churches, and executing in the East from circa 320 onward, actions framed as tyrannical reversals of tolerance that provoked Constantine's 324 invasion and justified Licinius' deposition. Debates persist over the civil wars' origins, with evidence suggesting mutual treaty violations—Licinius' refusal to recognize Constantine's sons as contrasted with Constantine's expansionist incursions into Illyricum—rather than unilateral aggression by either, though chronologies remain contested due to biased dating in victor-controlled records. On religious policy, some analyses argue Licinius' alleged persecutions were exaggerated in Christian to legitimize Constantine's unification, as pagan sources are silent and Licinius may have initially favored a balanced tolerance favoring traditional cults without systematic anti-Christian ; alternative views posit him as pragmatically Christian-leaning until political rivalry intensified. These interpretations highlight source credibility issues, where ' narratives prioritize Constantine's divine mandate over empirical neutrality.

Modern Interpretations

In nineteenth- and early twentieth-century scholarship, Licinius was frequently characterized as a tyrannical to Constantine, influenced heavily by the dominant Christian narratives that emphasized his alleged persecutions and military defeats as . This portrayal aligned with broader Enlightenment-era tendencies to frame Roman history through moral binaries, casting Constantine as a proto-Christian hero and Licinius as an obstacle to imperial unity and religious progress. However, mid-twentieth-century historians began to highlight Licinius' administrative successes, such as economic stabilization in the East via coinage reforms and infrastructure projects, portraying him as a pragmatic successor to the rather than an unqualified villain. Twenty-first-century research has intensified debates over key events, including the precise dating of the civil wars between Licinius and Constantine, with scholars unable to resolve discrepancies in sources regarding the timeline of conflicts from 316 to 324, often attributing variations to propagandistic distortions. The extent of Licinius' religious policies against Christians after circa 320 is similarly contested; while ancient accounts describe edicts restricting church gatherings and clergy privileges, modern analyses, informed by epigraphic and papyrological evidence, suggest these measures were regionally limited, inconsistently enforced, and primarily responsive to perceived loyalty issues amid escalating rivalry rather than a systematic ideological campaign comparable to Diocletian's. This reevaluation underscores the skew in surviving sources, predominantly Christian and pro-Constantinian, which amplify Licinius' actions while downplaying parallel restrictions under Constantine. Empirical reassessments favor multi-causal explanations for Licinius' downfall, emphasizing geopolitical competition and power consolidation over simplistic moral or religious absolutes; numismatic parallels between Licinius' and Constantine's emissions indicate shared fiscal strategies, while inscriptions reveal Licinius' efforts to uphold Tetrarchic and traditional cult practices as a counter to Constantine's centralization. Scholars like Noel Lenski have contributed to this shift by contextualizing Licinius within the unstable post-Tetrarchic framework, viewing his resistance as a defense of decentralized pluralism against monarchical ambitions, though debates persist on whether his policies truly deviated from contemporary norms. Such interpretations prioritize archaeological data over hagiographic biases, revealing a whose competence in challenges earlier vilifications.

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