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Self-expression values
Self-expression values
Self-expression values
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Self-expression values are part of a core value dimension in the modernization process.[1] Self-expression is a cluster of values that include social tolerance, life satisfaction, public expression and an aspiration to liberty. Ronald Inglehart, the University of Michigan professor who developed the theory of post-materialism, has worked extensively with this concept. The Inglehart–Welzel Cultural Map contrasts self-expression values with survival values, illustrating the changes in values across countries and generations.[2] The idea that the world is moving towards self-expression values was discussed at length in an article in the Economist.[3] Expressing one's personality, emotions, or ideas through art, music, or drama,[4] is a way to reveal oneself to others in a way that is special to them.[5]

Emergence of self-expression values

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The emergence of the post-industrial society has instigated significant cultural changes.[6] In the United States, Canada, Western Europe, and a growing proportion of East Asia, the vast majority of the people are no longer employed in factories, but work in the service sector instead.[7] There has been a transition from a mechanical environment to one where more people spend more of their time dealing with other individuals, symbols, and information, thus workers in the knowledge sector need to exercise their own judgment and decision-making abilities.

This transition has had significant outcomes:

  • This transition has led to historically high levels of prosperity and welfare states that offer food, clothing, shelter, housing, education, and healthcare to almost everyone. Even in the United States, where the welfare state is relatively limited, the government still significantly redistributes part of the GDP. This creates a scenario where the people in respective societies start taking physical survival, minimum living standards, and nearly 80 years of average life expectancy for granted. This further motivates them to pursue goals beyond mere survival.
  • Contemporary service-oriented occupations demand the use of cognitive skills.[8] Engineers, teachers, lawyers, accountants, counselors, programmers, and analysts all fall under the category of creative class. Despite sometimes working in hierarchical organizations, creative professionals have a considerable degree of autonomy in their work. The demand for cognitive skills is significantly higher than that in societies during the early stages of industrialisation. In order to meet these demands, the workforces in post-industrial societies are increasingly pursuing higher education, with a focus on creativity, imagination, and intellectual independence.
  • Post-industrial societies tend to be more socially liberal than those that preceded them. The centrally controlled, highly regimented workforces of the industrial world have disappeared, along with the strong conformity pressures that came with them. The traditional system, in which children depend on their parents to survive, in return for which they are expected to take care of their parents in old age, has been weakened by the welfare state. As a result, close-knit family structures, once a survival necessity, are now increasingly a matter of choice, replacing 'communities of necessity' with 'elective affinities'.[9]

The destandardisation of economic activities and social life reduces social constraints in unprecedented ways. Therefore, the transition in post-industrial societies is largely characterised by liberation from authority. [10]

Self-expression values and democracy

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Different political systems can emerge from industrialization. These include fascism, communism, theocracy and democracy. In contrast, post-industrial societies are associated with socio-cultural changes that strengthen the prospects of genuine and effective democracy.

Knowledge societies cannot function effectively without highly educated workers, who become articulate and accustomed to thinking for themselves. Moreover, rising levels of financial stability bring more emphasis to values of self-expression that prioritise personal freedom of choice. There is an increasing likelihood for mass publics to desire democracy, and they are becoming more effective in achieving it. As time goes on, repressing mass demands for liberalization becomes more damaging and expensive to economic effectiveness. Economic development is connected to democracy due to these changes.[11]

Empirical measurements of self-expression values

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The World Values Survey provides the most comprehensive assessment of how values are perceived and expressed. To date, five "waves" have been undertaken, with each including additional countries in the survey.

Subsequent data analysis by Inglehart indicated that a significant proportion of the variation in the data could be accounted for by using measures that accessed only two dimensions: a traditional to secular-rational axis and a survival to self-expression axis. Initially, the factor scores were derived from 22 variables,[1] but they were later reduced to only 10 (5 for each dimension) due to data availability constraints.

The self-expression axis has the following factor loadings.[10]

Survey question Factor loading
Respondent gives priority to self-expression and quality of life over economic and physical security 0.87
Respondent describes self as very happy 0.81
Homosexuality is sometimes justifiable 0.77
Respondent has signed or would sign a petition 0.74
Respondent does not think one has to be very careful about trusting people 0.46

Although consisting of only five variables, the correlates for this dimension in the WV survey are very strong. Below is a partial list.[10] Positive responses indicate survival values rather than self-expression values.

Survival values emphasize the following (opposite of self-expression values)[12] Correlation with survival/
self-expression values
Men make better political leaders than women. 0.86
Respondent is dissatisfied with financial situation of his or her household. 0.83
A woman has to have children in order to be fulfilled. 0.83
Respondent rejects foreigners, homosexuals and people with AIDS as neighbors. 0.81
Respondent favors more emphasis on the development of technology. 0.78
Respondent has not recycled things to protect the environment. 0.78
Respondent has not attended a meeting or signed a petition to protect the environment 0.75
When seeking a job, a good income and a safe job are more important than a feeling of accomplishment and working with the people you like. 0.74
Respondent is relatively favorable to state ownership of business and industry. 0.74
A child needs a home with both a mother and a father to grow up happily. 0.73
Respondent does not describe own health as very good. 0.73
One must always love and respect one's parents regardless of their behavior. 0.71
When jobs are scarce, men have more right to a job than women. 0.69
Respondent does not have much free choice or control over his or her life. 0.67
Imagination is not one of the most important things to teach a child. 0.62

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Self-expression values

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Self-expression values constitute a dimension of cultural orientation in which societies emphasize individual , , tolerance of diversity, , and active participation in processes, as opposed to prioritizing economic and . Developed by political scientists and Christian Welzel through analysis of the data spanning over 100 countries since the 1980s, these values reflect a shift from materialist concerns with to post-materialist foci on and , enabled by sustained economic prosperity and reduced existential threats. In contrast to survival values, which stress conformity to traditional social norms, deference to authority, and absolute standards of morality while de-emphasizing gender equality and sexual orientation tolerance, self-expression values promote subjective well-being through expressive individualism and reduced emphasis on national pride or parental obedience. Empirical indices derived from World Values Survey responses, such as those aggregating attitudes toward trust, happiness, and signs of quality of life, place societies high on self-expression when respondents favor personal freedoms over security, with Protestant Europe and Anglo societies scoring positively while Confucian and Islamic regions score negatively. This dimension correlates with higher interpersonal trust and altruism in cross-national studies, countering claims of inherent selfishness by linking self-expression to civic engagement rather than isolation. The prominence of self-expression values has been observed in longitudinal data showing intergenerational shifts in post-World War II affluent democracies, where younger cohorts exhibit greater support for and amid declining , though causal links to outcomes like or social cohesion remain debated due to factors such as . Critics, drawing from the same survey frameworks, note potential downsides including weakened family structures and lower fertility rates in high self-expression contexts, as prioritizations may conflict with incentives, though these associations do not imply direct causation absent controls for prosperity.

Conceptual Foundations

Definition and Core Components

Self-expression values constitute a dimension of human values identified through cross-national surveys, particularly emphasizing the shift from materialist concerns toward non-materialist priorities that foster individual and expressive fulfillment. Developed by political scientists and Christian Welzel, these values arise in societies where basic economic and needs are largely met, allowing populations to prioritize quality-of-life issues over sheer imperatives. In empirical terms, self-expression values are measured via indices aggregating responses to survey items on attitudes toward personal , social tolerance, and participatory engagement, contrasting with values that stress and . The core components of self-expression values include a strong emphasis on personal autonomy, where individuals value independent choice-making and over deference to or . This manifests in preferences for lifestyles enabling creativity, , and , such as and derived from non-economic sources. Another key element is tolerance of diversity, encompassing acceptance of immigrants, sexual minorities, and differing lifestyles, alongside advocacy for and reduced hierarchical constraints on individual expression. Further components involve environmental protection as a collective yet expressively driven priority, reflecting concern for sustainable quality of life rather than immediate economic gain, and participatory decision-making, where demands rise for involvement in political, economic, and social spheres to voice opinions and influence outcomes. These values correlate with higher interpersonal trust and lower emphasis on absolute obedience, promoting societies oriented toward openness, innovation, and intrinsic motivations over extrinsic security needs. Unlike survival-oriented values, self-expression prioritizes causal links between individual agency and broader societal flourishing, supported by longitudinal data showing their rise in post-industrial contexts.

Theoretical Origins in Post-Materialism

The theory of post-materialism, developed by political scientist , provides the foundational framework for understanding self-expression values as a response to socioeconomic abundance in advanced industrial societies. Inglehart's scarcity hypothesis posits that value priorities reflect the socio-economic environment of one's formative years, with materialist concerns—focused on and physical —dominating in eras of scarcity, while post-materialist orientations emerge when basic needs are met. This shift was empirically observed through surveys in and during the 1960s and 1970s, where younger cohorts born after exhibited reduced emphasis on survival-oriented priorities. Inglehart's seminal 1977 work, The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics, formalized the intergenerational transition toward post-materialist values, which prioritize self-expression, aesthetic satisfaction, and intellectual fulfillment over traditional materialist goals like stable employment and order. Post-materialists, according to Inglehart, seek greater individual autonomy, , and non-material quality-of-life improvements, marking a "silent revolution" driven by prolonged prosperity and declining existential threats in post-war and the . Complementing , Inglehart's hypothesis asserts that these values are relatively enduring, shaped early in life and resistant to later economic fluctuations, as evidenced by persistent differences between pre- and post-war generations in surveys from nine Western democracies conducted between 1970 and 1971. Subsequent refinements integrated post-materialism into a broader cultural map via the (WVS), launched in 1981, where self-expression values crystallized as one pole of a two-dimensional axis contrasting with survival values. This dimension, co-developed with Christian Welzel, operationalizes self-expression through emphases on tolerance toward diversity (e.g., immigrants, sexual minorities), , , and , correlating with rising human autonomy in societies achieving high levels of existential security. Longitudinal WVS data from over 100 countries since the 1980s confirm the theory's causal logic, showing self-expression rising with GDP per capita above $10,000 (in 1990 dollars) and education levels, though critiques note potential overemphasis on generational effects versus life-cycle adaptations.

Contrast with Survival Values

Key Dimensional Differences

Self-expression values and survival values represent orthogonal dimensions of human values identified through factor analysis of survey data from the World Values Survey (WVS), with the survival-self-expression axis capturing a shift from prioritizing basic material security to emphasizing subjective well-being and personal autonomy. Survival values, predominant in societies facing existential threats like poverty or instability, stress economic and physical security, obedience to authority, and conformity to traditional norms, correlating with lower tolerance for behaviors perceived as disruptive to group stability, such as homosexuality or divorce. In contrast, self-expression values emerge in conditions of relative affluence and security, prioritizing environmental protection, tolerance of diversity (including immigrants, sexual minorities, and gender roles), life satisfaction, and active participation in decision-making, often at the expense of rigid hierarchies or unquestioned deference. Empirically, the -self-expression dimension loads on specific WVS items, such as stronger opposition to and support for absolute moral rules under survival orientations, versus higher endorsement of freedom of expression, over work, and confidence in individual agency under self-expression orientations. For instance, respondents high in survival values exhibit greater emphasis on national pride tied to economic strength and low support for post-materialist goals like reducing income inequality through redistribution, while self-expression adherents favor intrinsic motivations like and societal openness. This axis is distinct from the traditional-secular dimension, as survival values can align with either religious traditionalism or secular , but consistently oppose expansive personal freedoms. The differences manifest in trade-offs: survival values correlate with higher fertility rates and family-centric structures but lower subjective metrics, whereas self-expression values link to and democratic engagement yet potential vulnerabilities in collective resilience during crises. Longitudinal WVS data from waves spanning 1981 to 2022 demonstrate these as stable factors derived from principal components analysis across diverse national samples, underscoring their robustness over subjective interpretation.
Key AspectSurvival Values CharacteristicsSelf-Expression Values Characteristics
Security PrioritiesEconomic stability, physical safety, material needs firstQuality of life, environmental sustainability, personal fulfillment
Social ToleranceLow acceptance of outgroups, homosexuality, abortion; emphasis on conformityHigh tolerance for diversity, gender equality, immigration
Authority and ParticipationDeference to hierarchy, absolute rules, limited input in decisionsFreedom of expression, participatory democracy, individual autonomy
Well-Being OrientationExtrinsic rewards (e.g., income, status); lower life satisfaction reportsIntrinsic values (e.g., leisure, self-actualization); higher subjective happiness

Prioritization of Individual Autonomy vs. Collective Security

In self-expression values, individual autonomy—encompassing personal freedoms, expressive rights, and participatory decision-making—takes precedence over collective security mechanisms such as enforced conformity, deference to authority, and prioritization of economic stability. This orientation emerges in societies where existential security is relatively assured, allowing citizens to emphasize subjective well-being and tolerance of diversity rather than rigid group discipline to avert threats. In contrast, survival values subordinate autonomy to collective security, viewing obedience and uniformity as essential for physical and economic protection amid scarcity. World Values Survey data indicate that self-expression adherents show diminished support for absolute obedience or strongman rule, reflecting a calculated acceptance of potential disorder for the sake of liberty. Empirical manifestations of this prioritization include elevated endorsement of policies trading short-term for long-term quality-of-life gains, such as environmental regulations that risk job losses. Inglehart and Welzel's of surveys across 81 societies (covering 85% of the global population from 1981 to 2001) links self-expression values to stronger for such measures, alongside greater acceptance of , , and , which elevate individual choice above communal norms historically tied to . These values also correlate with "loose" cultural norms, marked by higher tolerance of deviance and less emphasis on avoiding actions that upset others, as opposed to "tight" survival-oriented systems enforcing compliance for security. The inherent in self-expression values becomes evident in postindustrial contexts, where baseline prosperity mitigates security risks, enabling and democratic engagement but potentially eroding resilience during downturns. Longitudinal evidence from the shows that when security falters—such as in economic crises—societies with dominant self-expression values may revert toward survival emphases, including authoritarian leanings, underscoring the conditional nature of autonomy's prioritization. Inglehart attributes this dynamic to human development stages, where initial security gains liberate values toward , yet persistent threats reassert collective safeguards over unchecked .

Historical and Cultural Evolution

Emergence in Post-War Advanced Societies

The emergence of self-expression values coincided with the post-World War II economic boom in advanced industrial societies, particularly in and , where sustained prosperity diminished the salience of survival imperatives. From 1945 to 1973, countries experienced average annual GDP growth rates of 4.5% to 5%, driven by reconstruction efforts, technological advancements, and expanding welfare systems that provided broad-based security against and . This era's "" of capitalism alleviated Maslow-inspired lower-tier needs, fostering conditions for higher priorities like individual autonomy and expressive fulfillment, as theorized in Ronald Inglehart's scarcity hypothesis, which posits that value priorities shift once basic material conditions are secured across generations. Inglehart's empirical analysis in The Silent Revolution (1977), drawing on surveys of over 15,000 respondents across nine Western democracies conducted between 1968 and 1974, documented an intergenerational pivot: postwar cohorts (born 1945–1955) entering adulthood exhibited 20–30% higher endorsement of post-materialist items—such as "giving people more say in decisions" and "protecting "—compared to prewar generations, who prioritized and order. This socialization hypothesis explains the pattern: early-life exposure to affluence imprints enduring preferences for self-expression, evident in rising support for , , and among youth in nations like the (where 28% of those under 30 were post-materialist by 1972) and . Longitudinal extensions of this framework, incorporating self-expression as a refined encompassing tolerance, , and quality-of-life emphases, confirmed the trend's persistence into the 1980s and beyond in high-security contexts. Data from early European Values Study waves (1981 onward) showed self-expression scores rising by 0.5–1 standard deviation per decade in Protestant (e.g., , ), correlating with GDP per capita exceeding $20,000 (in 1990 dollars) and low under 10 per 1,000 births, markers of existential security. Yet, the shift was cohort-driven rather than abrupt, with older materialist holdouts tempering overall societal adoption until demographic replacement advanced.

Intergenerational Shifts and Global Diffusion

In advanced industrial societies, analysis of data from 1981 to 2002 indicates a pronounced intergenerational shift toward self-expression values, with younger cohorts in high-income countries displaying significantly higher emphasis on these values than older generations, driven by formative exposure to economic prosperity and reduced survival pressures. This pattern, identified through cohort comparisons across multiple survey waves, reflects a transition where post-1945 birth cohorts prioritize individual , , and expressive freedoms over material security, a trend reinforced by time-series of rising self-expression scores in prosperous nations during the late . The global diffusion of self-expression values remains limited and regionally variable, with stronger uptake in areas experiencing rapid social rather than uniform economic advancement. In , for instance, waves from 1981 to 2018 show social globalization indicators—such as penetration and cross-border —correlating more robustly with elevated self-expression values (r = 0.48) than GDP per capita (r = 0.40), enabling countries like to approach levels comparable to despite lower development metrics. Nonetheless, broader longitudinal data from the same surveys (1981–2022) reveal sharp in self-expression values, widening particularly between high-income and low-income countries, as lower-income societies maintain stronger orientations amid persistent existential insecurities. This uneven spread underscores that while intergenerational replacement facilitates shifts within affluent contexts, cross-national adoption hinges on localized security gains and cultural transmission mechanisms, rather than inevitable modernization.

Empirical Assessment

Measurement via World Values Survey

The survival versus self-expression values dimension in the World Values Survey (WVS) operationalizes self-expression values as a cultural orientation prioritizing individual autonomy, tolerance, subjective well-being, and participation over economic and physical security. This dimension emerges from factor analysis of 10 key indicators drawn from WVS questionnaires, which explain over 70% of cross-national variance in responses. The indicators include attitudes toward tolerance (e.g., acceptance of homosexuality and foreigners), support for gender equality (e.g., women's employment and leadership roles), child-rearing emphases (e.g., imagination, independence, and determination over obedience, thrift, and religious faith), interpersonal trust (e.g., agreement that "most people can be trusted"), subjective well-being (e.g., self-reported happiness and life satisfaction), and postmaterialist priorities (e.g., environmental protection over economic growth, leisure over work). At the individual level, responses to these items—typically on Likert scales or rankings—are standardized and subjected to to yield dimension scores, with positive values indicating self-expression orientations and negative values survival orientations. National-level scores aggregate these, positioning societies on the Inglehart-Welzel cultural map's horizontal axis. This approach, refined by and Christian Welzel, relies on data from WVS waves spanning 1981 to 2022, covering over 120 countries and approximately 500,000 respondents, enabling detection of intergenerational and developmental shifts. Item selection draws from validated WVS modules, such as the values scale and neighborhood questions, with minor adaptations across waves to maintain comparability (e.g., Wave 7, 2017–2022, uses updated phrasing for probes). Reliability is assessed via exceeding 0.70 for the composite in most national samples, though cultural contexts can influence loading patterns, as evidenced in East Asian societies where collectivist norms temper self-expression loadings. Longitudinal indices track changes, such as rising self-expression scores in post-communist from 1.2 standard deviations below the global mean in the to near parity by 2010–2014.

Key Datasets and Longitudinal Evidence

The World Values Survey (WVS), initiated in 1981, serves as the principal dataset for empirically assessing self-expression values, encompassing seven waves through 2022 across over 100 countries and territories, with integrated time-series files enabling cross-temporal comparisons. Self-expression values are operationalized as a composite dimension contrasting with survival values, derived from factor analyses of survey items such as support for gender equality, tolerance toward homosexuality and divorce, emphasis on subjective well-being over economic security, participation in protests, and confidence in individual agency; higher scores indicate prioritization of personal autonomy, environmental protection, and expressive freedoms. The European Values Study (EVS), merged with WVS data since 1981, provides supplementary longitudinal depth for European nations, facilitating panel-like analyses of value shifts within cohorts and generations. Longitudinal analyses of WVS waves reveal a consistent upward trend in self-expression values in advanced economies, correlating with rising existential security from economic growth and welfare provisions; for instance, in Western European countries like Sweden and the Netherlands, aggregate scores on the self-expression dimension increased by approximately 0.5 to 1 standard deviation from Wave 1 (1981–1984) to Wave 6 (2010–2014), driven by intergenerational replacement where post-1945 cohorts score 10–20 percentage points higher on tolerance and autonomy items than pre-World War II generations. Similar patterns emerge in English-speaking democracies such as the United States and Canada, where self-expression orientations rose steadily through Wave 7 (2017–2022), with data from 66 countries showing heightened emphasis on gender equality and immigrant tolerance amid sustained GDP per capita growth exceeding 2% annually in these contexts. In non-Western longitudinal series, such as and , WVS data document a marked shift toward self-expression values post-1990s and industrialization, with scores converging toward levels by Wave 7, evidenced by a 15–25% increase in support for and personal freedoms among urban cohorts. The 2023 Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map, aggregating Waves 6–7, confirms these trends globally, positioning 28 societies—including and —higher on self-expression than in prior mappings, though with slower gains in and stalled progress in parts of amid economic volatility. These findings, robust across repeated cross-validation in WVS factor models, underscore a causal pathway from security enhancements to value , though aggregate rises mask intra-societal variances by and strata.

Sociopolitical Implications

Associations with Democratic Stability

Societies exhibiting high levels of self-expression values, as measured by the (WVS), demonstrate a robust correlation with sustained democratic governance, where democratic institutions have persisted for decades without reversion to . This association is attributed to the values' emphasis on interpersonal trust, political participation, , and tolerance of diversity, which underpin effective democratic functioning by encouraging and reducing support for strongman rule. Longitudinal WVS data from waves spanning 1981 to 2022 reveal that countries clustering in the "self-expression" quadrant of the Inglehart-Welzel cultural map—predominantly Protestant Europe and English-speaking democracies—score highest on indices of democratic stability, such as those from and Polity IV, with minimal democratic backsliding observed since the post-World War II era. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel's analysis posits that self-expression values actively sustain by eroding the cultural legitimacy of authoritarian alternatives; for instance, in high self-expression contexts, polls show over 80% support for democratic norms like free elections and , compared to under 50% in survival-value dominant regions like parts of and the . This cultural predisposition is evidenced by lower protest tolerance thresholds for undemocratic practices and higher in established democracies, fostering institutional resilience against economic shocks or . Cross-national regressions from WVS datasets confirm that a one-standard-deviation increase in self-expression values correlates with a 0.15 to 0.20 point rise in scores, controlling for GDP per capita, indicating a supportive role in . Notwithstanding this correlation, empirical scrutiny reveals limitations in inferring causation or stability effects. A 2015 study reinvestigating WVS data across 1981–2007 found no significant independent effect of self-expression values on probabilities or durability after accounting for reverse and economic confounders, suggesting that democratic institutions may instead cultivate these values rather than vice versa. In particular, the analysis of 90 countries showed that self-expression scores failed to predict democratic survival in panel models, with authoritarian persistence in low-expression societies better explained by resource rents and elite pacts than cultural deficits alone. These findings underscore that while associations persist, self-expression values may reinforce rather than originate democratic stability, with potential endogeneity biasing cross-sectional interpretations. Economic security serves as a foundational precondition for the prevalence of self-expression values, as outlined in Inglehart's post-materialist , which posits that prolonged periods of economic prosperity and social welfare diminish survival-oriented priorities, enabling a cultural shift toward self-expression emphases like and tolerance. Longitudinal data from the (WVS) across multiple waves, spanning 1981 to 2022, reveal a consistent positive between national GDP and self-expression value indices, with advanced economies such as those in and scoring highest due to robust safety nets and growth rates averaging 2-3% annually post-World War II. This pattern holds in panel analyses, where instrumental variable approaches using factors like confirm that precedes value shifts, rather than vice versa. Self-expression values, in turn, exhibit bidirectional links to , though underscores indirect mechanisms over causation. At the societal level, post-materialist orientations—measured via Inglehart's indices in WVS —enhance institutional , including metrics from indices like the Fraser Institute's, which mediate positive effects on GDP growth; a 2023 panel study of 1980-2010 across diverse found post-materialism's growth impact negative but its indirect via freedom components (e.g., regulatory ) yielding a net positive transmission, with three-stage estimates showing coefficients of 0.79-0.87 standard deviations for institutional channels. This aligns with observations that high self-expression societies, such as (self-expression score ~1.5 on WVS scale in Wave 7, 2017-2022), sustain higher R&D expenditures as a percentage of GDP (around 3.4% in 2022) compared to survival-value dominant peers like (~0.7%). However, individual-level analyses reveal nuances: a multilevel WVS study (1999-2004 waves, n≈45,000 across 39 countries) using Inglehart's 12-item post-materialism index reported a significant negative association with entrepreneurial entry ( 0.93, p<0.001), attenuated by education controls, suggesting self-expression preferences may prioritize expressive pursuits over venture risks, potentially constraining raw startup rates. Conversely, these values correlate with creativity-enabling traits like openness and trust, fostering ecosystems through collaborative networks rather than solitary entrepreneurship; cross-national regressions link higher self-expression scores to elevated patent outputs per capita in OECD nations, mediated by tolerance for diversity (e.g., correlations r>0.6 with triadic patents in 2010-2020 data). Overall, while catalyzes self-expression, the latter sustains via institutional and cultural reinforcements, though backlash risks in stagnant economies highlight causal fragility.

Criticisms and Limitations

Challenges to Causal Claims

Empirical studies have questioned the causal direction posited by proponents of self-expression values theory, particularly the claim that these values drive and stability. A analysis by Hakhverdian and Mayne, utilizing dynamic models from the and accounting for country-fixed effects and endogeneity, found no significant positive effect of self-expression values on levels, probabilities, or regime durability. Instead, the study identified evidence of reverse causality, wherein prior experience with democratic institutions fosters self-expression values, challenging Inglehart and Welzel's assertion of unidirectional influence from values to political outcomes. Endogeneity remains a core methodological hurdle, as self-expression values and institutional outcomes may mutually reinforce or stem from unmodeled confounders such as historical legacies or geographic factors. Cross-national correlations in World Values Survey data, while robust, often fail to isolate causal flows without instrumental variables or quasi-experimental designs, which are scarce in cultural research. Critics argue that apparent effects diminish when controlling for temporal autocorrelation and selection biases in survey samples, suggesting that claims of values as preconditions for democracy overstate the evidence. Regarding links to economic security and innovation, causal assertions face similar scrutiny, with longitudinal cohort data indicating that economic development precedes and induces shifts toward self-expression values rather than the reverse. Intergenerational analyses show values evolving in response to rising per capita GDP and service-sector growth, as seen in post-World War II advanced economies where material security enabled value changes by the 1970s–1980s. This temporal pattern undermines notions of values autonomously spurring , as correlations may reflect omitted variables like institutional quality or technological diffusion, which independently drive both prosperity and cultural shifts. Rigorous tests, including those incorporating post-materialism indices, reveal that while values correlate with development metrics, their marginal causal contribution beyond economic and institutional factors is negligible or unverified.

Evidence of Potential Downsides and Backlash

Societies emphasizing self-expression values exhibit fertility rates substantially below the replacement threshold of 2.1 children per woman, a pattern observed in longitudinal data from high-scoring nations. For example, in 2023, scored highly on self-expression in metrics yet recorded a of 1.45, while the , similarly positioned, stood at 1.43; such trends reflect a de-emphasis on traditional structures in favor of and career pursuits. This demographic contraction exacerbates population aging, strains pension systems, and diminishes labor force growth, with projections indicating that advanced self-expression societies could face workforce shortages exceeding 20% by 2050 without offsets. The dominance of self-expression values has provoked a cultural backlash, fueling the electoral rise of authoritarian-populist movements in Western democracies. Norris and Inglehart's examination of waves from 1981 to 2014 reveals that intergenerational shifts toward self-expression—marked by , , and —generate resentment among older cohorts and rural populations wedded to values, correlating with vote shares for radical-right parties such as Germany's AfD (peaking at 12.6% in 2017 federal elections) and France's (33% in 2022 presidential runoff). Empirical models controlling for economic factors confirm this backlash dynamic, with self-expression polarization explaining up to 15-20% variance in populist support across 30+ countries, rather than grievance alone. Reassessments challenge the purported stabilizing role of self-expression values in democratic systems, finding null effects on regime durability. Panel analyses incorporating endogeneity and country-fixed effects from global datasets show no causal link between self-expression orientations and sustained levels or transitions, with evidence instead pointing to democratic institutions fostering these values rather than vice versa; this implies potential fragility when self-expression norms encounter external shocks or internal dissent. In high self-expression contexts, such as the post-2016, this has manifested in heightened polarization, with affective partisan divides widening by 0.5 standard deviations in surveys tracking value conflicts.

Recent Developments

Updates from 2023 Cultural Map

The 2023 edition of the Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map, released by the World Values Survey Association on February 17, integrates data from Wave 7 surveys conducted between 2017 and 2022 across 77 countries, providing an updated visualization of societal positions on the survival-versus-self-expression values axis. This horizontal dimension captures priorities shifting from material security, deference to authority, and low tolerance for outgroups—characteristic of survival values—to emphasis on subjective well-being, personal autonomy, environmental quality, and acceptance of diversity, as defined in self-expression values. The update refines prior mappings by incorporating post-2010s responses, revealing sustained high self-expression scores in clusters like Protestant Europe (e.g., Sweden at approximately +1.5 on the axis) and English-speaking democracies (e.g., Australia, Canada), where over 80% of respondents in Wave 7 prioritize lifestyle choices over economic survival. A key observation from the refreshed data is the widening global divergence in self-expression values, with high-income societies advancing further rightward while many middle- and low-income nations stagnate or regress slightly toward orientations amid economic pressures and geopolitical instability. Analysis of Wave 7 alongside prior waves indicates that self-expression emphases, including tolerance for and , have polarized most acutely, diverging by up to 1.0 standard deviations between advanced economies and the global average since 2010. For instance, Latin American countries like show modest rightward shifts (+0.2-0.3 units), reflecting rising middle-class agency, whereas African and Orthodox societies (e.g., , ) cluster leftward, with self-expression scores below -1.0, prioritizing security amid volatility. This pattern aligns with existential security theory, where sustained prosperity enables self-expression, but recent disruptions like the and inflation have reinforced foci in vulnerable regions. The map's 2023 iteration also underscores intra-cluster variations: within , and edge toward self-expression (+0.5 to +1.0), driven by and tech-driven prosperity, contrasting Confucian-influenced peers like , which hold near the midpoint (around 0) due to state controls limiting expressive freedoms. These positions derive from aggregated indices of 10-12 survey items, such as support for , homosexuality tolerance, and leisure over work, with Wave 7 sample sizes exceeding 1,000 per country for reliability. While the update affirms long-term convergence toward self-expression in democratizing states, it signals potential plateaus in Western exemplars, where generational data show younger cohorts in the U.S. and scoring marginally lower on autonomy metrics than mid-20th-century peaks, hinting at emerging backlashes against unchecked individualism.

Observed Reversals in High-Self-Expression Societies

In societies classified as high in self-expression values by the World Values Survey—such as Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands—recent political shifts have manifested as increased electoral support for parties advocating stricter immigration controls, national identity preservation, and skepticism toward supranational institutions, contrasting with the emphasis on tolerance and personal autonomy inherent in self-expression orientations. For instance, in Sweden, the anti-immigration Sweden Democrats party garnered 20.5% of the vote in the 2022 parliamentary elections, up from 5.7% in 2010, contributing to a right-wing coalition government that prioritized law-and-order policies and reduced asylum inflows. Similarly, in the Netherlands, Geert Wilders' Party for Freedom secured 23.5% of seats in the 2023 elections, leading to a coalition emphasizing border security and cultural assimilation, amid public concerns over integration failures following high migration periods. These developments align with the cultural backlash framework proposed by political scientists and , who analyze data to argue that rapid societal shifts toward self-expression values—fueled by postwar prosperity—have alienated segments of the , particularly older cohorts and those in economically precarious positions, prompting a reaction favoring authoritarian-leaning to restore perceived traditional securities. Empirical support includes longitudinal WVS trends showing persistent, though polarizing, adherence to survival-oriented priorities like amid events such as the , which correlated with a 10-15% drop in pro-immigration sentiment in Northern European surveys from 2014 to 2018. Inglehart and Norris attribute this not to an aggregate decline in self-expression scores— which remain elevated in these nations per Wave 7 data (2017-2022)—but to intensified cultural cleavages, where minority traditionalist views gain amplified political voice through democratic mechanisms. Further evidence appears in declining public trust in multicultural policies within these societies; for example, Dutch surveys post-2023 elections revealed 60% of respondents favoring reduced , a reversal from levels where only 40% held such views, linked causally to experiences of social strain rather than value erosion per se. This backlash has causal roots in perceived threats to existential , as theorized in Inglehart's modernization framework, where exogenous shocks like post-2008 and terrorism incidents (e.g., 2015-2016 attacks in ) activate latent survival values, overriding self-expression dominance in policy arenas. Multiple studies corroborate this dynamic, noting that while younger generations sustain self-expression norms, aggregate political outcomes reflect intergenerational tensions, with populist vote shares in high self-expression countries averaging 15-25% by , up from under 10% in the . Critically, these reversals challenge assumptions of inexorable progress in self-expression values, as WVS longitudinal files indicate stagnation in key indices like tolerance for diversity in since Wave 6 (2010-2014), with no further gains in Wave 7 despite economic recovery in some nations. In causal terms, this suggests self-expression thrives under stable but recedes under volatility, evidenced by Norway's 2021 election where the Progress Party's security-focused platform retained 11.6% support despite overall high self-expression rankings. Such patterns underscore a realist view: values are not monolithic but responsive to material conditions, with high self-expression contexts proving vulnerable to reversionist pressures when elite-driven changes outpace societal adaptation.

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