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Spike strip
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A spike strip (also referred to as a spike belt, road spikes, traffic spikes, tire shredders, stingers, stop sticks, by the trademark Stinger or formally known as a Tire Deflation Device or TDD) is a device or incident weapon used to impede or stop the movement of wheeled vehicles by puncturing their tires.
Generally, the strip is composed of a collection of 35-to-75-millimetre-long (1+1⁄2 to 3 in) metal barbs, teeth or spikes pointing upward. The spikes are designed to puncture and flatten tires when a vehicle is driven over them; they may be portable, as a police weapon, or strongly secured to the ground, as those found at security checkpoint entrances in certain facilities. (These particular models, however, retract and do not cause damage when a vehicle drives over them from the proper direction.) They also may be detachable, with new spikes fitted to the strip after use. The spikes may be hollow or solid; hollow ones are designed to detach and become embedded in the tires, allowing air to escape at a steady rate to reduce the risk of the driver losing control and crashing.[1] They are historically a development of the caltrop, with anti-cavalry and anti-personnel versions being used as early as 331 BC by Darius III against Alexander the Great at the Battle of Gaugamela in Persia.[citation needed]
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In the United States, five officers were killed deploying spike strips in 2011, having been struck by fleeing vehicles. Dallas, Texas police are among those banned from using them, in response to the hazards.[2]
Remotely deployable spike strips have been invented to reduce the danger to police officers deploying them.[3]
Private possession of spike strips was banned in New South Wales, Australia in 2003 after a strip cheaply constructed from a steel pipe studded with nails was used against a police vehicle. John Watkins, a member of New South Wales Legislative Assembly, stated they would be added to the New South Wales prohibited weapons list.[4]
Following the rise in terrorist vehicle attacks whereby a vehicle is driven at speed into pedestrians, a net with steel spikes that can be deployed by two people in less than a minute, reported able to stop a vehicle of up to 17 tonnes, was developed for preventive use at public events in the UK, with the name "Talon". It has steel spikes to puncture tires, and becomes entangled around the front wheels, halting the vehicle. It is designed to reduce risk to crowds by making the vehicle skid in a straight line without veering unpredictably. It was first deployed to protect a parade on 11 September 2017.[5]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spike strips.
- ^ Beard, Jonathan (24 August 1991). "Technology: Spikes end chases with a hiss not a bang". New scientist. No. 1783. Archived from the original on 22 April 2013. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
- ^ "Dallas police ban use of spike strips that can halt fleeing vehicles". Dallas Morning News. June 8, 2012. Archived from the original on June 10, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2020.
- ^ "DynaSpike Remote Control Spike System". dynasystems2.
- ^ "Ban on home-made road spikes after car chase". The Sydney Morning Herald. December 10, 2003.
- ^ "Steel spiked net to tackle London vehicle terror attacks". BBC News. 11 September 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
Spike strip
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Overview
Definition and Purpose
A spike strip, also known as a tire deflation device, stop stick, or road spikes, is a portable tool employed primarily by law enforcement to impede or halt the movement of wheeled vehicles by puncturing their tires.[6][9] The device typically consists of a flexible strip embedded with hollow, barbed prongs or spikes that allow air to escape from tires gradually upon vehicle contact, avoiding sudden blowouts that could cause loss of control.[1][10] The core purpose of spike strips is to facilitate the safe termination of high-speed vehicle pursuits, minimizing dangers to officers, suspects, and the public that arise from prolonged chases.[11][12] By enabling controlled tire deflation, these devices reduce the likelihood of crashes, injuries, or fatalities compared to alternatives like precision gunfire or tactical vehicle interventions.[4][3] They are deployed in scenarios where a suspect flees, often during pursuits involving suspected criminal activity, to de-escalate situations without escalating force.[5]Basic Mechanism of Operation
A spike strip functions as a tire deflation device consisting of a flexible base material lined with a series of rigid, hollow spikes, typically made of high-strength steel, arranged perpendicular to the direction of vehicle travel.[9] When deployed across a roadway, the device lies flat, with spikes protruding upward. As a vehicle's tire rolls over the strip, the sharp tips of the spikes penetrate the tire's tread or sidewall, creating punctures.[13] The spikes, often 2 inches in length with barbed or multi-edged designs, are engineered to detach from the strip's webbing upon sufficient force from the tire's weight and motion.[14] Once embedded, the hollow interior of each spike serves as a conduit, allowing compressed air within the tire to escape at a controlled rate rather than causing an immediate blowout.[15] This gradual deflation typically reduces tire pressure over 200 to 400 feet of travel, depending on vehicle speed, tire type, and load, enabling the vehicle to slow progressively without sudden loss of control.[10] The design accommodates various tire constructions, including run-flat and self-sealing variants, by ensuring deep penetration sufficient to bypass internal reinforcements.[9] This mechanism prioritizes safety by avoiding catastrophic tire failure, which could lead to swerving or rollover, while effectively immobilizing the target vehicle after multiple tires are compromised—usually requiring contact with several spikes across the strip's width.[13] Empirical data from law enforcement deployments indicate success rates exceeding 90% in terminating pursuits when properly placed, though effectiveness diminishes at very high speeds or on certain terrains.[10]History
Early Concepts and Development (1960s–1980s)
The foundational patent for modern spike strips, a manually deployed device intended to puncture and deflate vehicle tires, emerged in the 1940s, evolving from ancient caltrop designs but adapted for automotive use.[5] [16] These early iterations consisted of basic mats or strips embedded with rigid spikes, requiring officers to position them across roadways ahead of fleeing vehicles, often under hazardous conditions.[5] In the 1960s and 1970s, police departments experimented with rudimentary tire deflation tools amid rising concerns over high-speed pursuits, which caused numerous fatalities; however, deployment remained ad hoc, typically involving scattered nails, caltrops, or homemade spiked carpets, as seen in early implementations by the Boston Police Department to halt speeding vehicles.[17] Such methods prioritized gradual deflation to maintain vehicle control, contrasting with abrupt stops from roadblocks, but lacked portability and reliability, limiting widespread use.[5] By the 1980s, conceptual advancements focused on improving officer safety and effectiveness, with prototypes emphasizing foldable frames and hollow spikes for controlled air release; retired Utah Highway Patrol trooper Donald Kilgrow initiated development of the Stinger Spike System after a pursuit incident, incorporating rocker arms to secure spikes during deployment.[18] These efforts addressed empirical risks from earlier manual tactics, where officers faced strikes from vehicles, though formal standardization awaited the 1990s.[19]Widespread Adoption and Standardization (1990s–2000s)
During the early 1990s, amid growing concerns over the dangers of high-speed police pursuits—which had resulted in numerous civilian and officer fatalities—law enforcement agencies sought alternatives to traditional ramming or PIT maneuvers. In 1992, Indiana State Police Trooper Ken Greves invented the Stop Stick, a portable tire deflation device consisting of a lightweight tube embedded with hollow spikes that allowed for gradual tire deflation without immediate vehicle instability.[20] [21] This innovation addressed limitations of earlier manual spike methods by enabling quicker deployment and safer outcomes, paving the way for broader experimentation with such tools. Commercial availability and initial adoption accelerated in 1996, when Greves licensed the Stop Stick for widespread distribution, marking the formal introduction of modern tire deflation devices (TDDs) into routine police operations across the United States.[20] [7] By the late 1990s, TDDs had gained popularity as a preferred pursuit termination method, with agencies reporting reduced chase durations and injury risks compared to unchecked high-speed engagements.[22] This period saw a shift from ad hoc use to integration in departmental policies, driven by empirical evidence from early deployments showing effective vehicle stops without escalating violence. Into the 2000s, standardization emerged through the proliferation of competing yet similar products, including Magnum Spikes and the Stinger expandable strip, which offered variations in length, spike configuration, and retraction mechanisms to suit urban or highway scenarios.[22] Training protocols, often mandated by state police academies and federal guidelines from bodies like the FBI, emphasized deployment timing, officer positioning, and risk assessment to minimize accidents, such as vehicles veering into bystanders or pursuits.[7] By mid-decade, TDDs were standard equipment in over 80% of major U.S. police departments, reflecting a consensus on their utility in balancing pursuit efficacy with public safety.[11] This era's advancements also included remote deployment prototypes, though manual versions remained predominant due to cost and reliability factors.Design and Types
Core Components and Materials
Spike strips, also known as tire deflation devices, consist primarily of a flexible base strip embedded with an array of upward-pointing hollow spikes or prongs arranged in a linear or grid pattern. These spikes, typically 35 to 75 millimeters in length, are engineered to penetrate tire sidewalls without causing immediate catastrophic failure, thereby facilitating controlled air release over distances of several miles to enable safe vehicle deceleration.[6][23] The spikes themselves are constructed from high-strength metals such as 304 stainless steel, selected for their corrosion resistance, sharpness retention, and ability to withstand impacts from vehicle tires at speeds up to 100 mph without fracturing. Hollow interiors in the spikes, often featuring tapered or power-point designs, regulate deflation rates by limiting airflow escape, distinguishing them from solid puncturing devices that risk rapid blowouts and loss of control.[6][23][24] The base strip, which anchors the spikes, is made from durable, flexible synthetic materials like rubberized webbing or reinforced polymer composites to ensure pliability during rapid deployment across roadways while resisting tearing from traffic or environmental exposure. Many designs incorporate protective plastic housing or sheaths for storage and officer safety, preventing accidental punctures during handling, with lengths commonly spanning 20 to 30 feet to cover multiple lanes.[25][6][26] Additional core elements may include deployment cords or reels, often 80 feet long, constructed from high-tensile nylon or similar fibers, allowing officers to position the device from a safe distance without direct road exposure. These components collectively prioritize mechanical reliability over electronic features in standard models, though some variants integrate torsion springs or pneumatic actuators made from stainless steel for automated spike elevation.[25][27]Variations in Deployment and Deflation Methods
Spike strips, also known as tire deflation devices, exhibit variations in deployment techniques tailored to operational contexts such as law enforcement pursuits or military checkpoints. Manual deployment remains predominant, involving officers positioning the device across a roadway ahead of a fleeing vehicle, typically using a patrol car for cover and an escape route to mitigate risks from the suspect driver.[28] [7] Specific protocols, as outlined for the Stinger Spike System, include the pull deployment method—where the strip is uncoiled and extended from behind cover—and curbside deployment, which positions the device along the road edge for targeted tire engagement.[24] Portable variants like stop sticks enable handheld or vehicle-dropped placement, allowing flexibility in dynamic scenarios such as urban pursuits or on unpaved surfaces, though they require officers to exit the vehicle briefly.[10] Emerging techniques incorporate remote or automated systems, including explosive-propelled strips tested by police in 2024 pursuits to eliminate on-foot exposure, though these remain non-standard due to complexity and regulatory hurdles.[29] Deflation mechanisms vary to balance stopping efficacy with vehicle control, primarily through puncture design. Hollow tubular spikes or prongs, common in systems like stop sticks and the Stinger, pierce tire sidewalls upon contact, lodging barbed elements to sustain a controlled air leak rather than instantaneous rupture, thereby reducing rollover risks during continued motion.[3] [6] [14] These differ from rigid spike strips, which employ solid or semi-hollow metal points for faster deflation but heightened instability, as the tire pressure drops more abruptly post-puncture.[3] Materials such as high-strength steel ensure penetration of reinforced, self-sealing, or run-flat tires, with some designs featuring retractable or frangible elements to prevent reuse or roadside hazards after deployment.[14] [26] Departmental policies, such as those from the Milwaukee Police Department, restrict usage to approved models like Stop Stick or Magnum Spike to standardize deflation rates and minimize variables in pursuit termination.[30]Operational Deployment
Procedures in Law Enforcement Pursuits
In vehicle pursuits, law enforcement agencies deploy spike strips, also known as tire deflation devices, as a precision intervention to puncture and gradually deflate the tires of a fleeing vehicle, thereby reducing speed without immediate loss of control. A secondary pursuit unit, positioned ahead of the primary chase, selects a deployment site featuring straight roadway, clear visibility, minimal cross-traffic, and natural or vehicular cover to minimize officer exposure. The deploying officer exits their patrol vehicle, which is parked perpendicular to the road for concealment, and manually unrolls the strip across the suspect's anticipated lane, anchoring it if necessary with weights or stakes; timing is critical, with rollout occurring seconds before the target vehicle arrives to prevent evasion.[7][28][31] Deployment requires explicit supervisory authorization in most protocols, communicated via radio to ensure coordination, and pursuing units are alerted to brake early and straddle lanes if needed to channel the suspect onto the device. Officers must assess risks such as the suspect's potential to swerve, high speeds exceeding 60 mph which may reduce efficacy, or environmental factors like rain that could cause hydroplaning post-deflation; devices are contraindicated on motorcycles unless deadly force criteria are met, due to immediate instability risks. Post-deployment, the strip is retrieved promptly after the vehicle stops—typically within 1-2 miles as tires deflate—to avoid endangering subsequent traffic, with scene security maintained until the suspect is apprehended.[32][33][34] All deployments mandate detailed reporting, including pursuit recap forms documenting rationale, conditions, and outcomes, to facilitate reviews for policy adherence and training improvements. Protocols emphasize that strips should not be used after pursuit termination or in scenarios where alternatives like roadblocks pose lower collateral risk, prioritizing causal factors such as vehicle type and pursuit duration over reflexive escalation. Empirical reviews of incidents underscore the need for cover, as in 10 analyzed cases from 2013-2023 where officers relied solely on their vehicles for protection during setup.[35][36][37]Training and Tactical Protocols
Law enforcement agencies mandate specialized training for spike strip deployment, typically following manufacturer guidelines such as those for the Stinger Spike System or Stop Stick, which include classroom instruction, video demonstrations, and hands-on practice with un-spiked models.[24][37] Training emphasizes site selection for cover, equipment handling, and retrieval techniques, with field recertification recommended every six months to maintain proficiency.[24] Documented departmental training is required prior to operational use, ensuring officers understand agency pursuit policies and risks like high-speed impacts.[38] Tactical protocols position spike strip use as a controlled intervention in vehicle pursuits, reserved for situations where the fleeing operator demonstrates clear intent to evade arrest by high-risk means, often as a last resort after less intrusive methods fail.[37][38] Supervisors must authorize deployment when feasible, with officers selecting locations offering substantial concealment—such as guardrails or bridge abutments—ideally with a one-mile line of sight and minimal cross-traffic exposure.[37][38] Radio communication coordinates all units, broadcasting deployment sites to maintain safe distances and avoid unintended vehicle contacts.[37][7] Deployment follows two primary methods to minimize officer exposure: the pull method, involving placement across the roadway followed by retreat to 40 feet and tethered pulling into final position; or curbside tossing, where the device is thrown low across the road before immediate concealment.[24] Officers exit patrol vehicles roadside ahead of the pursuit, avoiding use of the vehicle itself as cover due to its vulnerability in collisions.[7][37] Post-deployment retrieval uses tethers, with protocols prohibiting entry onto active roadways and restricting use on motorcycles or in high-density areas unless deadly force is justified.[24][38] Safety protocols prioritize officer protection, as data from 2013–2022 indicate 17 fatalities linked to tire deflation devices, with failures often tied to inadequate cover or roadway positioning.[37] Officers must assess factors like pursuit speed (averaging 93 mph in fatal cases), suspect vehicle details, and environmental conditions before acting, favoring hard barriers over soft concealment.[37][24] Alternatives like precision immobilization techniques or aerial monitoring are considered to reduce direct confrontation risks.[7]Effectiveness and Empirical Data
Statistical Outcomes in Vehicle Stops
A survey of 58 U.S. law enforcement agencies documented over 600 deployments of tire deflation devices, including spike strips, with 32% of agencies reporting a 100% success rate in fully stopping suspect vehicles and 38% achieving an 80% success rate; partial successes often reduced vehicle speeds in 58.6% of cases, facilitating safer apprehension.[39] In contrast, an analysis of 17 officer-fatal incidents involving such devices from 2013 to 2022 revealed tire deflation success in only 3 cases (17.6%), with failures in 11 (64.7%), typically due to suspects swerving to avoid deployment amid pursuits averaging 93 mph.[37] These deployments have been associated with 42 officer fatalities nationwide since 1996, averaging 1.7 annually, most occurring when suspects struck deploying officers rather than from post-deflation vehicle instability; no bystander fatalities were noted in the reviewed fatal cases, though 8 officers sustained non-fatal injuries.[37] Suspect capture rates remained high even in these high-risk scenarios, with arrests achieved in 13 of the 17 incidents following device attempts.[37] Broader agency surveys indicate minimal collateral harm, with 89.6% reporting no injuries or deaths linked to deployments and only 8.6% citing minor officer injuries, often attributable to training deficiencies rather than device failure.[39] Manufacturer-reported figures, such as over 4,000 successful Stop Stick terminations in recent years, suggest high efficacy in controlled conditions but lack independent verification and may overstate routine outcomes by excluding avoidance or high-speed failures.[37] Empirical data overall remains constrained by reliance on self-reported agency experiences and retrospective fatality reviews, underscoring variability tied to factors like pursuit speed, road type, and deployment timing.[39][37]Comparative Safety with Alternative Pursuit Termination Methods
Tire deflation devices, such as spike strips, offer a non-contact method for terminating pursuits by puncturing vehicle tires to induce gradual deflation and slowdown, contrasting with more aggressive alternatives like the Precision Immobilization Technique (PIT), roadblocks, or ramming. These devices are positioned ahead of the fleeing vehicle, requiring officers to exit their patrol cars and expose themselves to potential strikes, which elevates risks during deployment.[37] In comparison, PIT involves a pursuing officer's vehicle deliberately contacting the suspect's rear quarter to cause a spin-out, while roadblocks use barriers or coordinated vehicles to halt the target, both entailing direct physical intervention.[31] Deployment of spike strips has resulted in 42 officer fatalities from 1996 to 2022, averaging 1.7 per year, with many occurring as officers positioned devices with minimal cover, such as behind patrol cars alone.[37] Of 17 analyzed fatal incidents from 2013 to 2022, TDDs succeeded in only 3 cases, failed in 11, and had unclear outcomes in 3, often due to suspects swerving or incomplete tire deflation.[37] The PIT maneuver, by contrast, carries lower direct risk to deploying officers since it avoids foot exposure but has led to 30 total fatalities since 2016, including 10 passengers, 4 bystanders, and 18 linked to minor traffic violations, stemming from induced spins that can escalate into multi-vehicle crashes or rollovers at speeds above 25-40 mph.[31] Roadblocks and boxing-in tactics are deemed highest-risk, frequently prohibited in policies due to potential for head-on collisions yielding severe injuries across officers, suspects, and civilians.[31]| Pursuit Termination Method | Officer Fatalities | Total Fatalities (Officers, Suspects, Civilians) | Key Risks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Spike Strips/TDDs | 42 (1996–2022) | Multiple suspects; 8 additional officer injuries in analyzed crashes | Officer struck during deployment/retrieval; suspect vehicle instability[37] |
| PIT Maneuver | Not quantified per use | 30 (2016–present) | Spin-outs causing rollovers, bystander involvement; no empirical safe speed threshold[31] |
| Roadblocks/Boxing-In | Not quantified | High injury potential (no specific counts) | Direct collisions; prohibited in most agencies due to uncontrollability[31] |