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Springer Mountain
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Springer Mountain is a mountain located in the Chattahoochee National Forest on the border of Fannin and Gilmer counties. Located in the Blue Ridge Mountains in northern Georgia, the mountain has an elevation of about 3,770 feet (1,149 m).[1] Springer Mountain serves as the southern terminus for the Appalachian and Benton MacKaye trails.

Key Information

Name

[edit]

The origin of the name of Springer Mountain is unclear. One possible origin was that it was named in honor of William G. Springer, an early settler appointed in 1833 by Governor Wilson Lumpkin to implement legislation to improve conditions for the Indians. Another possibility was that Springer Mountain was named for the first Presbyterian minister to be ordained in Georgia, John Springer, who was ordained in 1790.[3]

The mountain has been called Springer since at least 1910. As late as 1959, some residents of Gilmer County were still calling the peak Penitentiary Mountain. According to the Gilmer County Historical Society, the name was officially changed by the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club (GATC). It is unknown why the mountain was named Penitentiary.[4] There is no known Cherokee name for the mountain.[5]

Geography

[edit]

Springer Mountain is a north–south-trending loaf-shaped mountain located on the border of Gilmer and Fannin counties.[6][4] The summit has an elevation 3,782 feet (1,153 m) above mean sea level.[2] Springer Mountain is part of the Blue Ridge Mountains that extend from Georgia to Maine. Springer Mountain divides the northern and southern extensions of the Blue Ridge in Georgia, with one branch heading northwest to the Cohutta Mountains and the other branch heading southwest to Mount Oglethorpe.[4] Springer Mountain is located inside the Chattahoochee National Forest, as well as the Ed Jenkins National Recreation Area.[7]

The mountain is located about 17 miles (27 km) east of Ellijay, 14 miles (23 km) northwest of Dahlonega and 11 miles (18 km) southwest of Suches.[6] Mount Oglethorpe, the original southern terminus of the Appalachian Trail, is located about 14 miles (23 km) south of Springer Mountain.[4] Other nearby geographical features include Black Mountain, Tickanetley Creek and Winding Stair Gap.[6]

Hiking

[edit]

Appalachian Trail

[edit]
Appalachian Trail plaque at top of Springer Mountain

In 1958, the southern terminus of the Appalachian Trail was relocated from Mount Oglethorpe to Springer Mountain. The reason for this relocation was because of increased development around Mount Oglethorpe.[8] Springer Mountain was considered to be less dramatic than Mount Oglethorpe, but because of its remoteness, Springer Mountain was also considered to be less susceptible to development.[5]

One way to climb Springer Mountain is from a parking lot on Forest Service Road 42, located 0.9 miles (1.4 km) north up the Appalachian Trail from the summit. Hikers desiring to hike north from Springer Mountain would begin by hiking 0.9 miles (1.4 km) south on the Appalachian Trail before turning around to hike north. At the peak of Springer Mountain is a bronze plaque with the Appalachian Trail logo, a register for hikers to sign, and a benchmark.[9]

In addition to the Appalachian Trail, Springer Mountain can be reached from the south via the Appalachian Approach Trail.[10] The approach trail starts at the visitor center of Amicalola Falls State Park and is 8.5 miles (13.7 km) in length.[9] The Appalachian Trail Conservancy recommends that Appalachian Trail hikers start at the Amicalola Falls State Park instead of Forest Service Road 42 as overcrowding on the service road can block emergency vehicles. The approach trail was a part of the original Appalachian Trail until 1958, and was a part of the section that went down to Mount Oglethorpe.[11]

Benton MacKaye Trail

[edit]

Springer Mountain is also home to the southern terminus of the Benton MacKaye Trail. The trailhead for the Benton MacKaye Trail is located around 0.3 miles (0.48 km) north of the summit.[12][13][14]

The Springer Mountain Shelter.

Shelters

[edit]

The nearest shelter from the summit is the Springer Mountain Shelter, located about 0.2 miles (0.32 km) north of the summit. A water spring is located near this shelter.[15][16] The shelter was built in 1993 and is maintained by the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club.[17] Another nearby shelter is the Black Gap Shelter, located about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south of the summit on the Appalachian Approach Trail.[10]

[edit]
  • A hiker signs the Appalachian Trail register at Springer Mountain
    A hiker signs the Appalachian Trail register at Springer Mountain
  • Appalachian Trail marker
    Appalachian Trail marker
  • Campsite on top of the mountain
    Campsite on top of the mountain
  • View from Springer Mountain in May
    View from Springer Mountain in May
  • View from Springer Mountain in November
    View from Springer Mountain in November
  • Springer Mountain (left) and Black Mountain (right) covered in snow. Viewed from East Ellijay
    Springer Mountain (left) and Black Mountain (right) covered in snow. Viewed from East Ellijay

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Springer Mountain

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Springer Mountain is a prominent peak in the of northern Georgia, serving as the southern terminus of the renowned since 1958, when the trail's starting point was relocated from nearby Mount Oglethorpe due to encroaching development. Rising to an elevation of 3,782 feet (1,153 meters) in Fannin County, it lies within the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest and marks the beginning—or end, for southbound hikers—of the 2,197-mile (3,538 km) footpath that extends through 14 states to in . The mountain's significance extends beyond its role as a trail endpoint; as of 2025, it attracts thousands of thru-hikers who begin their multi-month journeys northward, including over 2,000 northbound registrations, while also drawing day hikers and section hikers for its accessible yet challenging terrain. Access to the summit is most commonly via the 8.5-mile (13.7 km) blue-blazed Approach Trail from Amicalola Falls State Park, which features steep climbs and stream crossings, or by a shorter 0.9-mile (1.4 km) hike from Forest Service Road 42 off U.S. Highway 19. At the peak, visitors encounter a bronze plaque emblazoned with the Appalachian Trail logo, a hiker register for signing in, and a survey benchmark, all underscoring its status as a ceremonial gateway to one of the world's most iconic long-distance trails. An open-front shelter, located 400 yards (366 meters) downslope via a side trail, provides basic overnight accommodations and enhances the site's appeal for overnight stays amid the surrounding hardwood forests teeming with wildlife such as black bears and diverse flora including rhododendrons and mountain laurel.

Geography

Location and Topography

Springer Mountain is situated in the Chattahoochee National Forest on the border between Fannin and Gilmer counties in northern Georgia, forming part of the range. This location places it within the expansive Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forests, a vast protected area encompassing diverse ridge systems and peaks characteristic of the southern . The reaches an of 3,782 feet (1,153 m), with coordinates at approximately 34°37′36″N 84°11′37″W. Topographically, the mountain features a rocky that provides unobstructed views of the surrounding terrain, while its slopes are covered in dense forests typical of the region's mixed growth. These forested inclines contribute to the mountain's rugged profile, with gradual rises interspersed by outcrops and narrow ridgelines extending into adjacent valleys. Proximate to small towns in the North Georgia foothills, Springer Mountain lies about 17 miles east of Ellijay and 14 miles northwest of Dahlonega as straight-line distances. Nearby landscape features include other prominent peaks such as Coosa Bald to the northeast, which rises to 4,280 feet and exemplifies the undulating topography of the broader Blue Ridge system. Springer Mountain serves as the southern terminus of the , marking the starting point for the long-distance footpath that traverses the Appalachian range.

Climate and Environment

Springer Mountain, situated in the southern , experiences a characterized by mild summers and cool winters, with an average annual temperature of approximately 55–60°F (13–16°C). Summer highs typically reach 80–85°F (27–29°C) in , while winter lows often dip to 25–35°F (-4 to 2°C) in , accompanied by occasional snowfall that accumulates to a few inches at higher elevations. These conditions contribute to a lush, forested environment but can pose challenges for visitors, such as or during cooler months. The mountain receives abundant precipitation, averaging 60–70 inches (152–178 cm) annually, with the highest amounts occurring during summer thunderstorms that enhance the region's while increasing risks of trail mud and flash flooding. As of 2022, Georgia's has warmed by about 1°F since 1970, with projections for further increases that may affect trail conditions and precipitation patterns. This rainfall pattern supports the development of small streams and springs along the slopes, which are integral to the local and help maintain watershed health in the surrounding Chattahoochee National Forest. The area's soils are predominantly acidic and rocky, derived from underlying metamorphic bedrock consisting of , , and , which promote well-drained, loamy conditions suitable for the dominant forest cover. Human activities have shaped the environmental conditions through active by the U.S. Forest Service, including and measures implemented since the forest's establishment in to restore lands degraded by historical . The region remains vulnerable to wildfires, which the Forest Service addresses through suppression and prescribed burns to reduce fuel loads and mitigate risks, particularly during dry periods exacerbated by variability. Ongoing efforts also focus on preventing from heavy rainfall and recreational use, ensuring the long-term stability of the .

History

Early History and Naming

The region encompassing Springer Mountain, located in the of northern Georgia, formed part of the traditional territory of the people, who settled in the area by the mid-15th century and developed an agricultural society reliant on crops such as corn, beans, and melons, supplemented by hunting deer and bear. No specific recorded Cherokee name exists for the mountain itself, though the broader landscape held cultural significance within their homeland, which included present-day Gilmer and Fannin Counties. This territory was drastically reduced by the early 19th century due to increasing settler pressures, culminating in the forced removal of the Cherokee via the between 1838 and 1839, following the of 1830 and events like the gold rush in nearby Lumpkin County. European settlement in the area began in the early , but remained sparse owing to the rugged terrain, which limited accessibility and agricultural viability. The mountain's name, "Springer," first appeared in records by the early , though its precise origin remains uncertain. The most probable source is William G. Springer, a appointed in 1833 by Wilson Lumpkin as an agent to enforce state legislation ostensibly aimed at improving conditions for the , amid escalating tensions leading to their removal; contemporary newspapers document his role as for the within Georgia's borders. An alternative theory attributes the name to Rev. John Springer, the first Presbyterian minister ordained in Georgia on July 22, 1790, under a poplar tree near Washington in Wilkes , where he served multiple congregations. Prior to widespread adoption of "Springer," the peak was known locally as Penitentiary Mountain, a designation some Gilmer residents continued using as late as 1959, though the —possibly linked to or visual resemblance—has been lost to time. By the late , the area's challenging continued to deter large-scale settlement, but resource extraction emerged as a primary economic activity. Timber harvesting intensified as part of the Southern Appalachian logging boom, which began in the and involved clear-cutting vast stands of hardwoods and conifers to supply emerging industries, though operations around Springer were constrained by the steep slopes and isolation. Mining also occurred, exemplified by the Springer Mountain Mica Mine in the Chattahoochee National Forest vicinity, which produced sheet for brief periods in the late 1800s, with reports of associated minerals like emerald. These activities reflected broader patterns of exploitation in north Georgia's mountains, where natural resources drew limited but targeted European American incursions prior to federal conservation efforts in the early .

Establishment as Trail Terminus

, a forester and , first proposed the in his 1921 article "An : A Project in ," published in the Journal of the . He envisioned a continuous along the Appalachian crest to provide urban dwellers with access to wilderness for recreation and psychological renewal, initially planning the southern terminus farther south in Georgia near areas like Cohutta Mountain to encompass a broader swath of the southern highlands. However, practical considerations during the trail's development, including terrain challenges and land availability, led to adjustments that positioned the early southern end at Mount Oglethorpe instead. By the mid-20th century, increasing development around Mount Oglethorpe threatened the trail's integrity, as portions traversed private land vulnerable to encroachment. In 1958, the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club, in coordination with the Appalachian Trail Conference (predecessor to the Conservancy), successfully advocated for relocating the southern terminus approximately 14 miles northeast to Springer Mountain. This shift ensured the endpoint lay entirely on within the Chattahoochee National , offering greater remoteness, protection from , and reliable access for hikers while aligning with the trail's wilderness ethos. To commemorate the new terminus, the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club installed a plaque at Springer's summit in , designating it as the official southern starting point for northbound hikers and endpoint for southbound ones. The plaque, featuring a symbolic hiker emblem and directional inscription from Georgia to , has since become an iconic marker for the trail's roughly 2,190-mile length. Since 1958, the Appalachian Trail Conservancy has coordinated ongoing maintenance and protection of the Springer Mountain segment through volunteer clubs and partnerships with federal agencies, including the U.S. Forest Service. This integration into the Chattahoochee National Forest has preserved the area's ecological integrity while facilitating annual access for thousands of hikers, solidifying Springer's role as a protected gateway to the full route.

Trails and Hiking

Appalachian Trail

The Appalachian Trail (AT) is a renowned 2,197.4-mile (as of 2025) footpath dedicated exclusively to hiking, extending from its southern terminus at Springer Mountain in northern Georgia to Mount Katahdin in Maine, while traversing 14 states and incorporating diverse terrains from forested ridges to open balds. Completed in 1937, it serves as a unit of the National Park System and stands as the longest hiking-only trail in the world, fostering a profound connection between people and nature through its passage across eight national forests, six national parks, and numerous state and local lands. Managed cooperatively by the National Park Service and the Appalachian Trail Conservancy (ATC), the trail embodies a legacy of volunteerism and conservation, drawing over 3 million visitors annually for day hikes, section hikes, and ambitious thru-hikes. At the summit of Springer Mountain, elevation 3,782 feet, the AT officially commences with a bronze plaque embedded in a large rock, inscribed with the trail's and a dedication to Georgia's natural beauty, alongside a hiker register for signing and a benchmark for reference. This marker symbolizes the trail's starting point, where northbound hikers first encounter the iconic white blazes—2-by-6-inch rectangular paint markings on trees, rocks, posts, or other features—that guide the route throughout its entirety. Each spring, from March through April, thousands of aspiring thru-hikers converge here to launch northbound journeys, with approximately 3,000 to 4,000 individuals attempting the full traverse in a single season, often under the "a thousand miles can't be wrong." Access to the summit is commonly achieved via the 8.8-mile Approach Trail, which begins at the visitor center and connects directly to the AT. The AT's initial segment from Springer Mountain covers 78.3 miles (as of 2025) entirely within Georgia, meandering through the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest and showcasing the southern Appalachian landscape with its mix of hardwood forests, thickets, and panoramic vistas. Hikers encounter moderate to strenuous elevation profiles, ranging from lowlands around 2,510 feet to the state's highest point on the trail at (4,461 feet), where rocky outcrops and wildflower meadows provide rewarding scenic highlights amid the gradual ascent northward. This Georgia portion, representing about 3.5% of the total trail, introduces thru-hikers to the physical demands of consistent climbs and descents while immersing them in the region's and tranquility. Ongoing maintenance of the AT, including the Springer section, relies heavily on a network of over 30 volunteer-based trail clubs coordinated by the ATC, which oversees protection, repairs, and enhancements across the entire pathway. Volunteers conduct routine tasks such as clearing blowdowns, installing , and controlling , while larger efforts involve strategic relocations to mitigate , protect fragile soils, and adapt to environmental changes like impacts and pressures. These proactive measures ensure the trail's , with annual adjustments—such as the 1.2-mile net increase in 2022 from relocations—reflecting a commitment to balancing hiker access with ecological preservation.

Approach Trail and Access

The primary route to the summit of Springer Mountain is the 8.8-mile Approach Trail, which begins at in . This blue-blazed trail serves as a preparatory hike for many northbound thru-hikers, offering a moderate-difficulty ascent with an elevation gain of approximately 1,980 feet from the park's to the summit. The trail features well-maintained signage, footbridges over streams, and gradual switchbacks through hardwood forests, making it accessible yet challenging for beginners. Access to the park requires a $5 per-vehicle fee, which grants entry to the , restrooms, and viewing platforms for the 729-foot , the tallest cascading waterfall east of the . For those seeking a shorter route, direct access is available from the Springer Mountain parking area along Forest Service Road 42 (USFS 42) in the Chattahoochee National Forest. This gravel road leads to a small lot accommodating about 20 vehicles, from which hikers follow a rocky 0.9-mile segment of the south to the summit, gaining 393 feet in elevation over uneven terrain. Parking here is free, but spaces fill quickly, especially on weekends, so early arrival is recommended; the road is passable by most vehicles in dry conditions but can become rough or impassable during wet weather or winter months due to potential seasonal restrictions in the national forest. Logistical considerations for both approaches include pet policies allowing leashed dogs on trails in the and national , though owners must clean up after them and keep pets under control. Private shuttle services are available from to the Springer parking area or summit, typically costing $40–$100 depending on group size and provider, and can be arranged through the Georgia Club for convenience. Upon reaching the summit, hikers connect to the official start of the at the plaque marking the southern terminus.

Benton MacKaye Trail

The is a nearly 300-mile footpath through the Southern , named in honor of forester and regional planner , whose 1921 proposal envisioned a network of trails and recreational areas to promote conservation and urban escape in the . The trail begins approximately 0.2 miles north of the Springer Mountain summit plaque, sharing its southern terminus with the before diverging into more remote terrain. It winds northward through Georgia, , and , ending at the junction with the at Davenport Gap in the northeastern corner of . Designed to commemorate MacKaye's broader vision for Appalachian recreation and wilderness preservation, the trail traverses diverse landscapes, including dense hardwood forests, numerous river and stream crossings, and high-elevation gaps offering panoramic views. Approximately 95% of its route follows public lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service and , emphasizing solitude and natural immersion over the more developed . In its early miles, the Benton MacKaye Trail overlaps and intersects the four times within the first seven miles, creating a shared starting area before permanently diverging toward less-traveled paths; the routes later converge again near around mile 180. The trail is maintained by the volunteer-led Association, founded in 1980 to realize and steward the path, which was fully completed in 2005. Marked by distinctive white diamond blazes—contrasting the 's white rectangles—it attracts hikers seeking a challenging alternative to the longer , particularly for section hikes through its 81.8 miles in Georgia and 205.8 miles across and , including 93 miles within .

Shelters and Facilities

Springer Mountain Shelter, constructed in 1993 by the Georgia Appalachian Trail Club, is an Adirondack-style three-sided located approximately 0.2 miles north of the mountain's summit via a blue-blazed side trail. It accommodates up to 12 hikers on wooden platforms, features a nearby privy, a bear box for , and a reliable spring water source about 0.1 miles downhill from the structure. Established tent sites with fire rings are available adjacent to the , supporting basic overnight needs for hikers. Black Gap Shelter, situated 1.5 miles south of Springer Mountain along the Approach Trail, serves primarily as an accommodation for southbound hikers arriving via that route or for day hikers seeking a shorter stay. This smaller has a capacity of eight and includes a water source downhill, though access can be steep; it was originally known as the Springer Tentsite before being formalized as a . Beyond these shelters, dispersed camping is permitted throughout the surrounding Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest under principles, which emphasize minimizing environmental impact through practices like packing out all waste and avoiding sensitive vegetation. Hikers must camp at least 100 feet from the and shelters to reduce overuse, with fire rings provided only at designated sites like those near Springer Mountain Shelter for contained campfires. Additional sources, such as springs, are scattered nearby but require treatment for safety. All shelters, including those at Springer Mountain, operate on a first-come, first-served basis with no reservations allowed, accommodating hikers of various experience levels, particularly those starting or ending thru-hikes. hangs are required for using provided cables or proper suspension methods to prevent encounters, and large groups are encouraged to use tents rather than overcrowd shelters.

Ecology

Flora

Springer Mountain, located within the Chattahoochee National Forest, is dominated by mixed hardwood forests typical of the southern Appalachian region. The canopy primarily consists of oak species such as (Quercus alba), (Quercus montana), (Quercus coccinea), and (Quercus rubra), alongside (Carya spp.), (Acer rubrum), and (Liriodendron tulipifera). Vegetation on Springer Mountain varies by elevation, with deciduous hardwoods prevailing on the lower slopes and transitioning to coniferous elements like eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) at higher elevations near the 3,782-foot summit. However, eastern hemlock populations are threatened by the invasive hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae), which has caused widespread mortality in the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest; management efforts include biological controls and insecticides to protect remaining stands. This zoning reflects the mountain's position in the Blue Ridge Mountains, where cooler, moister conditions at upper levels support hemlock stands. Invasive species pose challenges to native flora, particularly kudzu (Pueraria montana), which smothers understory plants and requires active management through mechanical and chemical controls to prevent further spread in disturbed areas. Seasonally, the flora offers striking displays: spring brings blooms of wild azalea (Rhododendron canescens), (Trillium spp.), and violets (Viola spp.) along the slopes, complementing the and laurel flowers. Fall transforms the landscape with brilliant foliage colors from turning oaks and maples in shades of red, orange, and yellow, while winter relies on the evergreen persistence of hemlock and broadleaf for coverage. The area's botanical diversity has been shaped by historical , which denuded much of the Chattahoochee region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, prompting federal acquisition of lands starting in to restore forests. As part of the national forest system, current protections under the U.S. Forest Service emphasize , including old-growth preservation and control, to maintain and support over 140 tree species across the broader .

Fauna

Springer Mountain, located within the Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest, supports a diverse array of mammals adapted to its forested montane habitat. Black bears (Ursus americanus) are common residents, with northern Georgia hosting a significant portion of the state's estimated 5,000 individuals (as of 2025), many utilizing the area's hardwood forests and streams for foraging on berries, nuts, and insects. (Odocoileus virginianus) are abundant, frequently observed grazing in clearings and contributing to the as prey for predators. Bobcats (Lynx rufus) prowl the as elusive carnivores, preying on small mammals, while eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) thrive in the canopy, aiding . The region is a hotspot for avian diversity, with over 240 bird species recorded in the adjacent corridor, many of which inhabit or migrate through Springer Mountain as part of the Atlantic Flyway. Migratory warblers such as the hooded warbler (Setophaga citrina) and (Setophaga ruticilla) pass through during spring and fall, utilizing the dense foliage for breeding and refueling. Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) roam the forest floor in flocks, foraging on acorns and insects, while raptors like the (Buteo jamaicensis) and (Accipiter cooperii) soar overhead, hunting small vertebrates. Resident species, including the (Thryothorus ludovicianus) and (Cardinalis cardinalis), provide year-round activity with their calls echoing through the woods. Reptiles and amphibians flourish in the moist, shaded environments around Springer Mountain, benefiting from the numerous streams and seeps. Timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus), a venomous species, inhabit rocky outcrops and leaf litter, ambushing and playing a key role in controlling pest populations. Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina), with their hinged shells for protection, wander slowly through the forest floor, feeding on invertebrates and fungi. Among amphibians, the Chattahoochee slimy salamander (Plethodon chattahoochee) is endemic to the area, thriving in humid crevices and contributing to the high salamander diversity typical of Appalachian slopes; other species like the southern two-lined salamander (Eurycea cirrigera) breed in nearby waters. Conservation efforts on Springer Mountain address several challenges to its , primarily from and trail-related disturbances, which can disrupt movement corridors for species like black bears and bobcats. Bear-human conflicts are a persistent issue, with aggressive foraging behaviors near campsites prompting temporary closures of facilities like the Springer Mountain Shelter to protect both wildlife and visitors; mandatory in bear-resistant containers is enforced throughout the national forest to mitigate these encounters. The area's benefits from federal protections under Chattahoochee-Oconee National Forest management, which prioritizes habitat restoration and sustainable recreation to maintain .

References

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  61. https://www.gainvasives.org/hwa/
  62. https://www.nps.gov/chat/learn/nature/kudzu.htm
  63. https://www.sherpaguides.com/georgia/mountains/long_trails/appalachian_trail.html
  64. https://www.gafw.org/pdf_files/chattahoochee_og_site_characteristics.pdf
  65. https://www.greatgeorgiaproperties.com/Outdoor-adventures/Chattahoochee_National_Forest_History.htm
  66. https://www.britannica.com/place/Appalachian-Mountains/Plant-and-animal-life
  67. https://worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/black-bear-population-by-state
  68. https://www.nps.gov/chat/learn/nature/animals.htm
  69. https://www.nps.gov/chat/learn/nature/birds.htm
  70. https://www.audubon.org/magazine/birding-georgia
  71. https://www.fs.usda.gov/r08/chattahoochee-oconee/newsroom/releases/feature-summertime-snakes-chattahoochee-oconee-national
  72. https://amphibiaweb.org/cgi/amphib_query?where-genus=Plethodon&where-species=chattahoochee&account=lannoo
  73. https://www.nps.gov/chat/learn/nature/reptiles.htm
  74. https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jzo.13215
  75. https://www.fs.usda.gov/r08/chattahoochee-oconee/alerts/be-bear-aware
  76. https://www.fs.usda.gov/r08/chattahoochee-oconee/projects/archive/56646
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