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Supay, as interpreted in a Peruvian festival

In the Quechua, Aymara, and Inca mythologies, Supay (from Quechua: supay "shadow"; Aymara: Supaya) was originally an ambivalent spirit, both benevolent and harmful, a denizen of the Incan netherworld (Ukhu Pacha) who might enter the world of the living as "shadow", perhaps attempting to bring someone as companion into the world of the dead.

Some explain Supay as a single spirit or god of the subterranean realm. Either way, in the Spanish Christianized conception the Supay was turned more or less into the Devil or demons living in Hell.

Etymology

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The anonymous dictionary of 1586 defines the term as "shadow" (sombra),[1] as do Father Diego González Holguín (1608) under "çupan"[2] and under "supa" Jorge A. Lira (1945) and Jesús Lara (1971).[3][4] In early Quechua-Spanish usage, the sense of "shadow" or "soul" or "anima" is followed.[5][6]

Other forms include: zupay,[6] çupay,[7] hupai,[7] hupee.[7]

Origins

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Among the indigenous Quechua people, "Supay" originally denoted a spirit that could both do good and do harm (they would try to appease the spirit they feared and worshiped[8]). This sense had not been lost to Friar Domingo de Santo Tomás whose dictionary glossed the term as both "good angel" alliçupa and "bad angel" manaalliçupa[9] in his Lexicón (1560), and only the spirit he qualified as bad, i.e., mana alii çupa "evil supay" corresponded to devils, as according to the quoted sermon about fallen angels inserted in the dictionary.[10][7] However, the Christianized Spaniards went on to apply the term "supay" conveniently to mean strictly "devil".[10][7]

The original Supay could be benevolent towards the living whom he liked, or those who suffered a dignified death. But he could be a terrible and evil being for any of the rest, both in the underworld and in the earthly world, and he could tip the scales of bad luck by whim alone.[11]

In the more original conception, the supay dwelled in the netherworld called "Ura Pacha" (or Uku Pacha, in the Incan three-world view[12]) but the supaya as living "shadows" (as per the meaning of the word) may wander into the world of the living ("Kay Pacha", 'Hereworld') to "gather companions" into the world of the dead.[13] The supaya is (typically) the soul of an ancestor,[14] and may assist the living by providing counsel for proper conduct in order to achieve peace (in death).[15] The supaya represents a necessary force of nature that wither things in order to bring about new life.[13]

Just as the Supay became the Devil through the prism of Christianity, the Viracocha, which originally designated a whole legion of primordial ancestors who came out of Lake Titicaca, was turned into the equivalent of the one monotheistic Creator God,[16]

Modern Andean-Christian belief

[edit]

The name Supay is now roughly translated into diablo (Spanish for devil) in most Southern American countries.

Some commentary regards the Supay as a single God of Death of the Uku Pacha (inner world),[17] the "god of the mountains",[18] or "the spirit or god who lived in the earth".[19]

What appears to be the case is there is conflation between the Supay, regarded as a trickster deity, and El Tío (q.v.), the Bolivian god of the underworld and the mines.[20] While scholarly argument postulates Tío to have been a sort of Spanish invented frightening god/boogeyman and thus a corruption of Dios,[21] the popular notion is that the miners avoid the derogatory supay and call him Tío, or "uncle".[22] The name is sometimes concatenated as "Tío Supay" or "Uncle Supay".[a][23]

It has been commented that in the early 20th century, the Aymara were more prone to worship the Supay akin to old tradition, and the Quechua more likely to regard it as a disgusting creature.[24]

In some areas of Peru, where the cult of the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated, she became controller of lightning who frightens away the devilish Supay (early 20th century).[24] This Catholic Virgin Mother is the Pachamama's counterpart, just as the Devil is the replacement for Supay.[18]

Mining communities

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Main article: Tío Supay

Supay is given original meaning in the miner's communities, with Tío or Supay recognized as the lord of the mines,[25] sometimes conflated together into figure of Tío Supay, as already discussed.[23] And the Virgin of the Mineshaft (Virgen del Socavón) is the mining communities' alias of the Virgin of Candelaria previously discussed.[26]

In Oruro, Bolivia, the Carnaval de Oruro features the diablada dance with the Supay cast in the role of its most important devil[26][b] The carnival dance may also feature the china supay or "she-devils" of overtly sexual nature that used to be performed by men.[28]

In the miners' lore, Tío was the king of the underground (rey de lo subterráneo), and Chinasupay the she-devil his wife, according to Victor Montoya, and he sees some parallels with the Hades-Persephone myth here.[29]

Retablos

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Vintage Andean household altars or retablos typically depicted two of the aforementioned three worlds, but more recent altars depict all three, with the lowest floor, Uku Pacha, of the lost souls of the deceased and demonical beings. The supay-devils are portrayed as goat-men with wings and long claws on hands and hind feet. There are also winged angels depicted, but the indigenous faith regards this not so much as the battle between good and evil but as striking balance between natural forces.[31]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Supay

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Supay is a central in Inca and Andean mythology, revered as the god of death and the ruler of Ukhu Pacha, the subterranean that forms one of the three cosmological alongside Hanan Pacha (the upper world) and Pacha (the earthly ). In pre-colonial Andean beliefs, Supay embodied an ambivalent spirit, capable of both benevolence and harm, overseeing of the deceased and exerting influence over the hidden depths of the earth, including mountains and mineral-rich mines where he was honored as the "Lord of Metals" to ensure miners' safety and yield. This duality reflected broader Andean cosmological principles of complementary opposites, positioning Supay as a necessary force in the cycle of , often manifesting with protective yet punitive qualities and even dual gender attributes in ritual representations. Artifacts and petroglyphs from the Inca period depict Supay in anthropomorphic forms, such as figures with raised arms, symbolizing his dominion over the chaotic, life-sustaining subterranean domain. With the arrival of Spanish colonizers and Christian missionaries in the , Supay underwent significant , becoming equated with the Christian —a fallen entity embodying evil—while overlaying indigenous concepts of eminent (supay) and naughty (saqra) underworld spirits tied to ancestors and life-giving powers. This transformation persisted in colonial and modern Andean practices, particularly in mining communities like , where Supay evolved into figures such as , a horned, demanding spirit propitiated through rituals like ch'alla offerings to balance the perils of extraction with . Despite this , Supay's role underscores the enduring Andean emphasis on harmonious relations with supernatural forces to maintain social and ecological equilibrium.

Linguistic and Historical Origins

Etymology

The term Supay originates from the Quechua word supay, which translates to "shadow," referring to entities connected to a shadow-world and ancestral beings in pre-colonial Andean beliefs. In Aymara, a closely related language, it appears as supaya, carrying similar connotations within the shared linguistic and cultural milieu of the . In early pre-colonial contexts, supay denoted the "soul" or "anima," embodying a supernatural aspect of human essence that could interact with the living, often as a guiding or ambivalent spirit rather than an inherently malevolent force. This understanding reflects animistic principles where the soul persisted in a liminal realm, influencing the physical world through counsel or disruption. Phonetic variants of the term in Quechua include zupay, çupay, hupai, and hupee, arising from regional dialects and orthographic adaptations in early linguistic records. The evolution of supay was shaped by oral traditions in Quechua- and Aymara-speaking regions, where meanings shifted gradually through storytelling and interaction with colonial influences, transitioning from neutral ancestral spirits to more demonized figures over centuries. These shifts highlight the dynamic nature of indigenous languages, preserved and adapted via communal narratives in highland communities.

Mythological Origins in Andean Cultures

In the mythologies of the Quechua, Aymara, and Inca peoples, Supay originated as an ambivalent spirit, embodying both benevolent and potentially harmful qualities within the pre-colonial Andean worldview. This figure represented a denizen of the spiritual realm, often tied to the natural and supernatural forces that influenced human life, without the inherent malevolence later imposed by colonial interpretations. Scholarly analyses of Andean beliefs highlight Supay's role as a complex entity, sometimes equated with saqra, a spirit connected to ancestral influences, underscoring its neutral stance in regulating the balance between the living and the spiritual domains. Supay's emergence as a prominent mythological element coincided with the expansion of the from approximately 1438 to 1533 CE, integrating into the established three-tiered cosmos of Hanan Pacha (the upper world of deities and celestial forces), Kay Pacha (the earthly realm of human activity), and Ukhu Pacha (the inner or associated with transformation and the dead). Within this framework, Supay inhabited Ukhu Pacha, serving as a mediator in the liminal spaces where earthly and subterranean energies intersected, facilitating , regeneration, and the passage of . This cosmological positioning reflected the Inca's holistic understanding of existence, where Supay contributed to the cyclical harmony of the pachas rather than opposing it. (Note: The link is from a related scholarly article on Andean cosmology by Casaverde, referenced in the primary source.) Prior to Spanish colonization, Supay was primarily portrayed as a neutral or protective entity closely linked to ancestral spirits, embodying the shadows or souls of deceased kin who watched over and guided the . This portrayal emphasized Supay's function in maintaining ancestral continuity and offering against chaos, as seen in narratives where it ensured the proper flow of vital energies from the to sustain agricultural and social life. Such characterizations predated European contact and rooted in indigenous perceptions of the dead as active participants in the cosmic order. The transmission and evolution of Supay's mythological role relied heavily on oral traditions among highland Andean communities, where stories were shared through communal rituals, songs, and narratives that preserved cultural knowledge. These traditions exhibited regional variations, with Quechua-speaking groups in central emphasizing Supay's ties to mountainous terrains and Aymara communities in the southern highlighting its connections to lake and spirits, adapting the figure to local environmental and social contexts. This oral foundation allowed for fluid interpretations, ensuring Supay's relevance across diverse ethnic landscapes within the Inca sphere.

Role in Traditional Andean Cosmology

Depiction and Characteristics

In pre-colonial Andean mythology, Supay was understood primarily as an ambivalent spirit rather than through standardized visual depictions, given the Inca reliance on oral traditions and limited surviving artifacts. Conceptual associations linked Supay to the wild and subterranean realms, with some accounts describing the ability to shapeshift into forms such as an Inca woman, a handsome Inca man, or various animals, facilitating interactions between worlds. Supay's characteristics reflect an ambivalent nature, embodying both benevolence and malevolence within the cosmology of the Ukhu Pacha, the Andean underworld. Supay acted as a mediator and guide, capable of granting favors like and to those who honored it through rituals such as offerings. It also possessed a harmful aspect, inflicting illness or misfortune on adversaries and embodying the unpredictable forces of death and the subterranean domain. This duality positioned Supay as a figure, using deception and transformation to bridge worlds, distinct from wholly malevolent entities in the pantheon. Variations in conceptualization appear across Quechua and Aymara traditions, where Supay (in Quechua) or its equivalent saqra (in Aymara) was viewed as an ancient spirit predating colonial influences, often as a perverse yet approachable man-like entity rather than an absolute evil. In Quechua lore, Supay ruled as the principal denizen of the , overseeing a race of demons while maintaining ties to music and as means of . Aymara accounts similarly portray saqra with a less terrifying demeanor, emphasizing its role in communal rites where participants seek alliance rather than fear outright domination.

Associations with the Underworld and Ancestors

In traditional Andean cosmology, Supay holds a primary association with Ukhu Pacha, the inner or lower world that constitutes the in the Inca's three-tiered cosmic structure of Hanan Pacha (upper world), Kay Pacha (this world), and Ukhu Pacha. As the god of death and principal ruler of this subterranean realm, Supay oversees the domain beneath the earth, where natural forces of regeneration and the cycles of life and decay converge. This positioning establishes Supay as a mediator between the living and the hidden depths, embodying the necessary equilibrium in the cosmos. Ukhu Pacha is intrinsically tied to ancestors, serving as a realm connected to the spirits of the deceased, who were revered as guardians of fertility and communal well-being. Supay's governance over this realm thus links it directly to ancestral veneration, as the ancestors' presence in the influences agricultural abundance and social harmony for the living. In this capacity, Supay aids ancestral souls by maintaining the order of the , ensuring their continued role in sustaining the vital reciprocity () between the worlds. Supay's interactions with the living manifest through omens and dreams, where signs from the signal the need for rituals to appease underworld forces and restore balance. These rituals, involving offerings to honor Supay and the ancestors, facilitate communication across realms, preventing disruptions like or misfortune. Supay's ambivalent nature, capable of both benevolence in guiding souls and harm through neglect of these rites, underscores the importance of such practices in Andean spiritual life.

Syncretism with Christianity

Modern Andean-Christian Beliefs

During the Spanish colonization starting in the , Andean indigenous concepts of Supay were redefined by missionaries and colonial authorities as equivalent to the or diablo, transforming it from an ambivalent spirit into a symbol of and temptation associated with . This redefinition occurred through linguistic and doctrinal impositions, such as in Quechua-Spanish dictionaries where supay was explicitly translated as "" or "," aligning indigenous underworld beliefs—originally tied to spirits—with to facilitate evangelization. In contemporary Andean-Christian , Supay assumes a role as both tempter and punisher, often depicted in as a malevolent force that lures individuals into moral or material excesses, yet balanced by protective Christian figures such as the , who is invoked to ward off its influences, including control over traditionally linked to domains. This fusion reflects a broader blending of cosmologies, where Supay's punitive aspects are countered by Catholic saints and the Virgin Mary, creating a spiritual equilibrium in rituals and narratives that integrate pre-colonial associations with redemptive . Supay persists in rural Andean communities as a dual entity—feared for its capacity to inflict harm or illness, yet invoked in healing rituals by curanderos (traditional healers) for and soul restoration, demonstrating its enduring ambivalence in syncretic practices. In these contexts, offerings or prayers to Supay may accompany , highlighting a pragmatic where the entity is appeased to prevent misfortune while affirming Christian dominance. Through 20th- and 21st-century , Supay has evolved, often conflated with global imagery such as the horned tempter or seductive , appearing in oral tales as a generous yet treacherous guardian of hidden treasures, further embedding Christian motifs into indigenous narratives. This adaptation is evident in regional stories where Supay's qualities merge with European demonic archetypes, sustaining its relevance in contemporary cultural expressions without fully erasing its protective undertones.

Influence in Mining Communities

In Andean mining communities, particularly in Bolivia's and regions, Supay has been conflated with , a syncretic revered as the lord of the mines and guardian of underworld riches, a figure that emerged during the colonial era of the 16th and 17th centuries. Spanish colonizers adapted the indigenous concept of Supay, originally a of the subterranean realm, into to instill fear and discipline among indigenous and enslaved African miners in the brutal conditions of silver extraction at sites like . This fusion positioned as a powerful, horned entity who controls veins and demands respect, blending pre-colonial Andean beliefs with Christian devil imagery to symbolize both the perils and rewards of labor. Miners perform rituals to appease Supay/El Tío, offering leaves, alcohol, and cigarettes to ensure safe extraction of ores and prevent accidents in the hazardous underground environment. These offerings, known as pijcheo or ch'alla, occur twice daily at shrines depicting , where is chewed for endurance, alcohol (often puro or 96% ) is poured as a symbolizing his "urine," and cigarettes are placed in his mouth to invoke against cave-ins and exhaustion. On Tuesdays and Fridays—days associated with the —llama sacrifices (k'araku) may accompany these gifts, with blood and fat shared to reinforce the bargain between miners and the , who can grant bountiful vetas (veins) or punish neglect with misfortune. Such practices provide psychological reassurance in deadly mines, where over 8 million lives have been lost historically to silver production. In mining lore, female counterparts known as china supay or "she-devils" appear as seductive entities tied to Supay/, embodying temptation and the underworld's allure, much like in Hades-Persephone myths where a consort rules alongside the lord of the dead. These figures, often depicted in masks and costumes, represent lust and serve as the Devil's wife in syncretic narratives, contrasting the male-dominated world while drawing from pre-Aymara traditions of female deities. Their presence underscores the gendered dynamics of , where china supay tempts or aids in rituals, reinforcing the protective yet demanding nature of Supay's domain. Supay/El Tío holds a central role in the Diablada dance of Oruro's , a UNESCO-recognized festival since 2001 that symbolizes the grueling labor of miners and their pacts with supernatural forces for mineral wealth. In this performance, dancers portray devils led by (embodying El Tío) confronting Archangel Michael, with masked figures carrying silver props to evoke colonial exploitation and the bargain for underground riches, ultimately submitting to the Virgen del Socavón, patron of miners. The Diablada, originating from 18th-century devotion, integrates Andean cosmology with Christian triumph, where the devils' defeat highlights the risks and spiritual negotiations inherent to extraction, drawing over 28,000 participants annually in a 20-hour .

Cultural Representations

In Retablos and Visual Art

In traditional Andean retablos, ornate portable altarpieces originating from colonial influences and adapted by indigenous artisans, figures associated with the devil or Supay appear in syncretic depictions representing entities. These portrayals often position such figures within the retablo's structure, which can mirror Andean cosmological divisions into the upper Hanan Pacha, middle Kay Pacha, and lower Ukhu Pacha. Some retablos illustrate layered cosmic realms, with domains featuring guardian spirits. The symbolism in these extends to the equilibrium of natural forces. Retablos served practical roles in domestic shrines, where families invoked protective aspects of supernatural entities or warded off harmful influences through rituals and placements near home altars. Over time, modern retablos have evolved to incorporate explicit Christian motifs, including hellish scenes reminiscent of European depictions of the , while retaining Andean associations with the . This highlights the transformation of indigenous spirits into figures bridging pre-Hispanic and colonial beliefs.

In Folklore and Performances

In Andean oral traditions, Supay features prominently as a mischievous wanderer and tempter in folktales passed down through generations, often embodying the unpredictable forces of the underworld. One such from the Aymara communities of K'ulta in recounts the story of "Jesus Christ-Tatala and the Supay-Chullpas," where Supay, allied with ancient mummified ancestors (chullpas), engages in cosmic conflicts that shape the origins of civilized life, highlighting his ambivalent role as both and necessary balancer of the world. These tales, transmitted verbally during communal gatherings, serve to educate on moral dilemmas and the duality of , with Supay tempting protagonists into or guiding them through trials of the spirit. Supay's integration into non-mining performances extends to regional festivals and music, where he symbolizes journeys in syncretic rituals. During the annual Virgen de la Candelaria festival in , , one of the central dances, the , portrays Supay as a horned figure leading a of infernal beings in a choreographed battle against archangels, representing the triumph of good over chaos while evoking pre-Columbian motifs of subterranean passage. This performance, involving elaborate masks and costumes, draws from Andean cosmology to depict Supay's realm as a vibrant, contested space, performed by comparsas (dance troupes) to rhythmic brass bands and flutes. In music, a staple of Andean social dances, Supay appears in songs like "Supay Maqt'a" by Teo Farfán and "Supay Viento" from traditions, where lyrics invoke him as a seductive spirit luring dancers into rhythmic abandon, blending with lively footwork to foster community bonds during fiestas. Modern adaptations of Supay in literature, film, and theater reimagine him as a symbol of and resistance in 20th-century Peruvian and Bolivian works. In Bolivian theater, the 1928 play Supay Marca by Zacarías Monje portrays Supay as a marker of indigenous lineage and struggle against colonial erasure, using the figure to critique social hierarchies and affirm Aymara heritage through dramatic monologues and scenes. These adaptations employ Supay to navigate themes of marginalization, transforming into performative critiques of . Through such and performances, Supay sustains indigenous resistance via performative , allowing Andean communities to subtly preserve pre-Hispanic worldviews within Christian frameworks. By recasting Supay as a in dances and songs, performers mock colonial impositions while reaffirming cultural autonomy, as seen in festival enactments that blend Quechua rituals with Catholic feasts to foster and empowerment against historical . This ongoing tradition underscores Supay's enduring role in articulating resilience and hybrid identities across generations.

References

  1. https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/gdc/gdcebookspublic/20/19/47/40/18/2019474018/2019474018.pdf
  2. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10332109/
  3. https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2220&context=isp_collection
  4. https://gtr.ukri.org/projects?ref=AH/J000957/1
  5. https://academic.oup.com/book/59575/chapter/503206672
  6. https://www.academia.edu/7639189/Dyablu_its_meanings_in_Ca%C3%B1ar_quichua_oral_narrative
  7. https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/25949/1/Dedenbach%2520-%2520Deities%2520and%2520spirits%2520in%2520Andean%2520belief%2520%2528SD%252001-10-2017%2529.pdf
  8. https://www.ancientpages.com/2020/06/07/supay-death-god/
  9. https://teachers.yale.edu/download/units/06_04_08.pdf
  10. https://books.google.com/books?id=6Wa9RwqdqEkC
  11. https://howtoperu.com/the-three-pacha-realms-of-inca-mythology/
  12. https://www.spiritualarts.org.uk/sun-kings-and-earth-mothers-the-sacred-gods-of-the-inca/
  13. https://amerindia.cnrs.fr/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/supay-Gerald-TAYLOR-.pdf
  14. https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1074&context=vocesnovae
  15. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/what-are-potosi-silver-mines-like
  16. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387496751_The_Use_of_Coca_in_Miners
  17. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/16/3/307
  18. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/carnival-of-oruro-00003
  19. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/carnaval-de-oruro-bolivia
  20. https://dokumen.pub/art-nature-and-religion-in-the-central-andes-themes-and-variations-from-prehistory-to-present-9780292735712-9780292735729-0292735715-0292735723.html
  21. https://journal.oraltradition.org/wp-content/uploads/files/articles/27i/08_27.1.pdf
  22. https://mythlok.com/supay/
  23. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/dancing-in-the-streets-punos-candelaria-festival
  24. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17442222.2022.2065625
  25. https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/andean-folk-tales-revolutionary-power/
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